The Writer's Desk Book. William Dana Orcutt
and clauses: e.g., Discouraged by constant opposition, he resigned his position. Short phrases of similar nature do not require the comma: e.g., Of his intentions there could be no doubt.
7. To separate the adverbs however, now, then, too, perhaps, and indeed from the context when they are used as conjunctions: e.g., This idea, however, had not occurred to him. When these words are used as adverbs, the comma is not required: e.g., It must be done, however contrary it may be to our present advantage.
8. To separate parenthetical or intermediate expressions from the context: e.g., His intentions, though at first concealed, became obvious.
9. After the last word of a series composed of several words not connected by conjunctions: e.g., The men, the women, the children even, were up in arms. {6}
10. Between words or phrases in apposition with each other: e.g., I refer to Mr. Taylor, the father of Scientific Management. But when used as a single phrase or a compound name, no comma is required: e.g., The poet Tennyson was born in 1809.
11. Between the name of a person and his title or degree: e.g., Charles W. Eliot, President Emeritus; Woodrow Wilson, LL.D.
12. Between two independent clauses connected by a conjunction: e.g., The door was barricaded, but we managed to open it.
13. Between relative clauses which are explanatory of an antecedent, or which present an additional thought: e.g., Her voice, which was charming in her own drawing-room, was not powerful enough for a public auditorium. But relative clauses which limit the meaning of the antecedent (called restrictive) do not require the comma: e.g., He did that which he was obliged to do.
14. Between two clauses, one of which depends on the other, and usually introduced by if, when, unless, though, where, wherever, etc.: e.g., If we stand together, success is assured. If the clauses are closely connected both in sense and construction, the comma is not required: e.g., William was ten years old when his father moved to Boston.
15. In compound sentences, to separate the co-ordinate clause when closely related and simple in construction: e.g., He was {7} courteous, not cringing, to superiors; affable, not familiar, to equals; and kind, but not condescending, to inferiors.
16. To indicate an ellipsis: e.g., Price, seventy-five cents.
17. To separate vocative words or expressions from the context: e.g., I leave it, gentlemen, to your sense of right and wrong.
18. Before not, when introducing an antithetical clause: e.g., He devoted his attention to the matter before him, not because he was interested, but because he could not avoid the issue.
19. To separate similar or identical words, even though not required by the sense or grammatical construction: e.g., I tell you, you are wrong.
20. To separate two numbers: e.g., March 1, 1912; In 1911, 869 cases were reported.
21. To separate a quotation or similar brief expression from the preceding part of the sentence: e.g., To quote the proverb, “Look before you leap.”
22. Before the word of, connecting a proper name with residence or position: e.g., Senator Lodge, of Massachusetts.
23. After the salutatory phrase at the beginning of a letter, when informal: e.g., My dear Mother, but, when formal, Gentlemen:
The comma is not required:
1. Before or after conjunctions such as and, or, nor, but, and yet when employed to {8} connect two words belonging to the same part of speech and in the same construction: e.g., Sink or swim, live or die, survive or perish, I give my hand and my heart to this vote. When words are not in pairs, the comma must be used: e.g., Sink, die, or perish, I give my hand and my heart to this vote.
2. Before or after conjunctions when they are employed to connect two expressions in the same construction used as if belonging to the same part of speech: e.g., The new system of management guarantees accuracy in getting orders under way and promptness in completing them.
3. Before the conjunction too when placed at the end of a sentence: e.g., I hope that you will come too.
4. Where there are two or more words or phrases having a conjunction between each two: e.g., Lest he should be tempted and yield and thus be false.
5. After an adjective that describes or limits another adjective together with the noun following: e.g., He had on a pair of torn gray corduroy breeches.
6. When a pronoun is used with a noun for emphasis: e.g., Lafcadio Hearn himself could not have described the scene more vividly.
THE SEMICOLON
The semicolon is used to indicate a pause or a degree of separation next greater than {9} the comma. Caxton was the first to introduce into English printing the Roman points of punctuation as used in Italy. The comma replaced the unwieldly |, and the colon was an added refinement, but for some unexplained reason he steadfastly opposed the introduction of the semicolon. This mark should always be placed outside the quotation-marks unless forming a part of the quotation itself.
Use the semicolon:
1. When the members of a compound sentence are complex in construction or contain commas: e.g., He was courteous, not cringing, to superiors; affable, but not familiar, to equals; and kind, but not condescending, to inferiors.
2. To connect successive sentences: e.g., His face never showed an emotion other than that which he wished to have seen there; the mouth was protected by his heavy mustache; his eyes penetrated the object on which they fixed themselves. Shorter sentences should be divided by commas.
3. Between expressions in a series which have a common dependence upon words at the beginning or end of a sentence: e.g., The half-sick man is a nuisance to his entire household: he is not ill enough to accept restraint; he is too ill to be reasonable.
4. To separate passages containing chapters in scriptural references: e.g., Matt. 1 : 4–8, 12, 16; chap. 3; 8 : 16. {10}
THE COLON
The colon is used between clauses of compound sentences, additional clauses without a conjunction, formal quotations, and particulars in apposition with a general term, to mark the necessity of a pause greater than that indicated by the semicolon and less than that indicated by the period. The colon is much less used today than formerly, as modern writers employ shorter and less formal sentences than those of a century ago. It should always be placed outside the quotation-marks unless included as a part of the quotation itself.
Use the colon:
1. Before as, viz., that is, namely, etc., when these words introduce a series of simple particular terms in apposition with a general term: e.g., There are three genders in Latin: namely, masculine, feminine, and neuter.
2. Between two members of a sentence when one or both are made up of two or more clauses divided by semicolons: e.g., Vallie was nervous in his temperment; the Captain was calm and self-contained: Vallie was the product of the city; the Captain was the product of the world.
3. Between a complete sentence and an additional clause enlarging upon the same idea without a conjunction: e.g., Imagination {11} is essential to business