Experiments on the Spoilage of Tomato Ketchup. Arvill Wayne Bitting
Experiments on the Spoilage of Tomato Ketchup
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL
Sir: I have the honor to submit for your approval a report made by Inspector Bitting of experimental work on the spoilage of tomato ketchup, the conditions contributing thereto, methods of prevention, the action of preservatives, and the length of time that the product will keep under varying conditions of manufacture and temperature, both before and after opening. Every effort has been made to conduct the work in a practical way, and the results obtained can not fail to be of interest and profit both to the manufacturer and consumer. I recommend that this report be published as Bulletin No. 119 of the Bureau of Chemistry.
Respectfully,
Hon. James Wilson,
Secretary of Agriculture.
INTRODUCTION
The tomato, Lycopersicum esculentum, is supposed to be native to South or Central America. The large fruits commonly used grow only under cultivation, but the variety with small, spherical fruits, known as L. cerasiforme, has been found on the shore of Peru and is considered by De Candolle1 as belonging to the same species as L. esculentum. Though grown extensively in Europe, there is nothing to indicate that it was known there before the discovery of America. The tomato was introduced into China and Japan at a comparatively recent date. De Candolle is of the opinion that the tomato was taken to Europe by the Spaniards from Peru and was later introduced into the United States by Europeans. Tomatoes were brought to Salem, Mass., by an Italian painter in 1802,2 who is said to have had difficulty in convincing the people that they were edible. They were used in New Orleans in 1812, though as late as 1835 they were sold by the dozen in Boston. After 1840 they came into general use in the Eastern States, but it was later than this before tomatoes were used freely in the Western States, many persons having the impression that, since they belonged to the nightshade family, they must be unwholesome. The extent to which tomatoes are used at the present time shows how completely this prejudice has been overcome.
The name Lycopersicum is from two Greek words, meaning a wolf, and a peach, the application of these terms not being apparent; the name of the species, esculentum, is from the Latin, meaning eatable. The common name “tomato” is of South or Central American origin, and is believed to be the term used in an ancient American dialect to designate the plant,3 but its meaning is unknown. The English call the tomato “love apple,” which in French is “pomme d’amour.”
The tomato is considered a typical berry, the ovary wall, free from the calyx, forming the fleshy pericarp, which incloses chambers filled with a clear matrix containing the seeds. The fruit measures from 1 to 5 inches in diameter, and is red, pink, or yellow when mature.
The plant sports freely, producing many varieties, which differ mainly in the size, shape, and quality of the fruit. The varieties bearing small fruits are L. cerasiforme and L. pyriforme, each bearing a two-celled fruit, the former being round, and somewhat larger than a cherry, and the latter pear-shaped. These small tomatoes are used ordinarily for preserves and pickles.
The word “ketchup” is adopted in this bulletin as the form which ought to be given preference. The derivation of the term is not definitely known. The spelling “catchup” given in some of the leading dictionaries appears to be based on the erroneous idea that the first syllable “ketch” is a colloquial form of “catch.” Several authorities derive the word from the East Indian or Malayan “kitjap,” because “ketchup” was originally a kind of East Indian pickles. Some give the word a Chinese origin, while others assert that it comes from the Japanese. A majority of the manufacturers employ the word “catsup,” a spelling for which there does not appear to be any warrant.
PROCESS OF MANUFACTURE
The making of tomato ketchup consists essentially in reducing tomatoes to pulp, removing the skins, seeds, hard parts, and stems, adding salt, sugar, condiments, and vinegar to suit the taste, and cooking to a proper consistency. The methods and practices of the various manufacturers differ, and the difference between the best and the poorest procedure corresponds to that between the best and the worst ketchup. No single factory has all of the best methods at every step of manufacture. Some perform certain details well and are negligent in others. In some, large amounts of money are spent on equipment to improve a particular point considered advantageous by the trade, while other details essential to the making of a good-keeping ketchup are disregarded. A statement of the best practice as observed at a number of factories, together with some facts obtained from experiments, will be given.
SELECTION AND PREPARATION OF STOCK
The tomatoes should be home-grown, of a red variety having the minimum of yellow and purple color, be picked when ripe, and delivered to the factory promptly without mashing. All tomatoes should pass over an inspection table, the rotten and otherwise unfit fruit should be discarded, and the green tomatoes should be returned to crates to ripen. The stems should be removed when the best color is desired, and the tomatoes should be thoroughly washed to remove dirt and mold. Dumping a crate of tomatoes into a hopper of dirty water and playing a gentle spray of water on part of them merely wets the skin and makes them appear bright.
PULPING
The clean tomatoes should be conveyed to the steaming tanks and subjected to steam heat until the skins burst and the meat softens. After a short heating the tomatoes should be run through a “cyclone” where the skins, seeds, etc., are removed and they are rubbed to a pulp. To remove very small particles and fiber, the pulp may be run through a sieving machine at once; or, if ketchup of the smoothest possible kind is to be made, this procedure should be delayed until after the cooking. The pulp is collected in a receiving vat, and only such an amount should be provided in advance as will keep the kettles full, as it is better to stop the tomatoes before going to the washer than to have the pulp stand for some hours. In common practice, however, the pulp is either sent to the cooker at once, or it is allowed to stand and partially separate. If tall casks are used for this separation the solids will rise to the top and the clear watery portion is drawn off at the bottom, or the pulp may be strained through cloth bags. The object of this separation is to secure greater concentration of the solids, retain a brighter color, and shorten the time of cooking.
COOKING AND SEASONING
The cooking may be done in copper kettles, as shown in figure 3, though these are being superseded by enamel tanks containing silver-plated coils in order to secure the brightest color. By using the latter the discoloration due to the splashing of the contents against the walls of the copper vessel is avoided, and economy of space is secured. Whole or ground spices, or acetic acid or oil extracts of the spices may be added to the pulp in such proportion as the particular brand demands. The spices most used are cloves, cinnamon, mace, and cayenne pepper; but paprika, pepper, mustard, cardamon, coriander, ginger, celery, and allspice are used by some manufacturers. When whole spices are used, it is the practice to suspend them in a cloth bag or a wire basket and to take them out after boiling. They tend to darken the color of the ketchup, a result considered undesirable by some. The ground spices are used sparingly, with the exception of cayenne pepper. The acetic acid extracts of spices are used because they are economical and give a brighter red color than is obtained with the whole spice. The oil extracts produce no discoloration, but they are the most expensive and give an objectionable flavor. Hungarian sweet paprika is now quite largely used and adds to the color as well as to the flavor. Sugar, salt, and vinegar are added in such proportion as may be desired, and in some brands onions and garlic are used.
EVAPORATION AND FINISHING
The pulp is evaporated rapidly to such consistency as the grade and price will warrant, the reduction in
Origin of Cultivated Plants, 1890.
Webber, H. J., Yearbook, U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1899.
U. S. Dept. Agr., Exper. Sta. Record, 1899-1900, 11: 250.