Ecology of Indonesian Papua Part One. Andrew J. Marshall
the Rabaul Botanic Garden (under the Department of Agriculture) but activity was limited and the small collection apparently was lost (a few non-forest tree duplicates survive at Kew and elsewhere). Plants (particularly forest trees) were also collected by J. B. McAdam (see also below) from his appointment in 1938 as a Forestry Officer through 1941, both in New Britain (there largely the work of J. L. d’Espeissis, another forestry officer) and around Wau (CANB, BRI), and by the entomologist J. L. Froggatt (BRI). But, as with insects (see above), outside the Gazelle Peninsula, New Britain would remain floristically almost unknown until the 1950s—and even now, large areas are still poorly explored including much of the south and the mountains.
"ECONOMIC" EXPLORATION
A number of "economic" expeditions and surveys were also made between 1918 and 1942, not always with significant botanical or zoological collections. The majority were in the 1920s or onwards from 1935, run as a result of reconnaissance requirements or inspired by more favorable business conditions.
After the League of Nations mandate was granted for the Territory of New Guinea in 1921, the Australian authorities organized some exploratory surveys. A geological-geographical reconnaissance was made on the Ramu River around 1922, while from 1922 to 1924 Lane-Poole undertook his already-mentioned extensive survey of more accessible forests (following relatively superficial pre–World War I surveys in German New Guinea and the Territory of Papua). Lane-Poole’s well-illustrated 1925 report, which includes a botanical section as well as observations on the forests and vegetation, remains a classic. Key areas visited included the Central, Northern, and Gulf provinces in southeastern New Guinea and in the Huon Peninsula, Ramu basin, and parts of the islands in the Mandated Territory.
Of other "economic" undertakings, one of the more important—and also a pioneer with "flying machines"—was a major new search for sugar cane (Saccharum) germplasm led by E. W. Brandes in 1928 for the United States Department of Agriculture. His associates included the Dutch botanist J. Jeswiet (Wageningen Agricultural College, the Netherlands), a sugar expert who also made general plant collections (WAG); C. E. Pemberton (of HSPA, Hawai’i), collecting insect pests of cane (Bishop Museum); and pilot R. K. Peck (a Stirling Expedition veteran). With their amphibious plane (furnished by a Chicago businessman), they ranged widely (including the Sepik basin) but did much of their work in the Fly River basin (Lake Daviumbu and the Fly, Strickland, and Oriomo Rivers), with Jeswiet also collecting in the Port Moresby region. The some 130 lots obtained were aimed particularly at improvement of the crop in the southern United States, but replicates also were deposited in Australia.
In the 1930s, with new political developments as well as improved business and economic conditions, further "economic" biotic exploration took place. This included renewed attention to forest resources, but relatively little else; extensive land surveys were in the future.
In western New Guinea, the first significant forest surveys were carried out at this time, particularly in areas fairly readily accessible by sea. First in the field was Z. Salverda, active over several months in 1936–1937 in the McCluer Gulf (now Bintuni Bay), Bomberai, and along the southwest coast. In 1939 Salverda was followed by L. J. van Dijk (with assistance from Bogor officials (mantris)Aët and Idjan), based for five months at Manokwari. From there he made tours to Yapen, Biak, and (nearer Manokwari) Mios Num. Some 1,600 numbers, primarily of forest trees, eventuated from these two undertakings (Bogor). In 1939–1940 van Eechoud—in connection with the already-mentioned Dutch expeditions to Enarotali—collected some forest trees at the request of van Dijk, mainly near the Mamberamo (Bogor). In 1941 E. Lundquist (see also above) examined more closely some of the areas explored by Salverda; he was accompanied by Aët (collections, Bogor).
Land evaluation was also taken up. A pedologist, F. A. Wentholt, collected on three occasions in connection with agricultural surveys—part of proposed trans-migration projects as well as other potential development. On part of his last tour of duty (1940–1941), Wentholt was accompanied in the Merauke region and on the Digul River by Anta (see above; collections, Bogor).
In 1938 a forest service was established in the Mandated Territory, and, as already indicated, J. B. McAdam and J. L. d’Espeissis were engaged as its first officers; their collections are covered above under "Plants" (above). Both were involved in forest surveys and the establishment of plantations, including, for example, hoop pine (Araucaria cunninghamii) near Wau (pers. obs.). McAdam was to return after 1942 as officer-in-charge of the Australian forestry companies (World War II section, below) and, after World War II, as head of the Department of Forests in the Territory of Papua and New Guinea (TPNG; see Post–World War II Era section, below).
As for other plants and trees, one of the few long-term legacies of the limited official effort was the collection (for the United States Department of Agriculture, as part of citrologist Walter Swingle’s comprehensive research) of germplasm and reference material of a close citrus relative, Clymenia polyandra (Tan.) Swingle (now Citrus polyandra Tan.). This tree was previously discovered by Peekel in New Ireland but not then definitely known elsewhere; it has since been found in New Britain and on the New Guinea mainland. The stock has been used towards improvement of citrus plantations in the United States and other countries.
The outbreak of World War II in Asia and the Pacific in December 1941 ended all official efforts as well as activities in the private sector. By this time, however, in "metropolitan" countries enough collections had been accumulated from most of Papuasia to furnish sketchy but useful knowledge of the biota, particularly the higher plant flora and vegetation, and the mammal, bird, and butterfly fauna. But sensibility still was largely static and would largely remain so for some time before the biota could begin to yield more secrets in relation to dynamic concepts of biology, ecology, and biogeography. That would require much more field time and sampling—tasks which would be energetically pursued after 1945 (see the Post-World War II Era section below).
World War II (1941–1945)
The onset of World War II in the Pacific soon brought much of New Guinea under Japanese control, Rabaul being surrendered in January 1942. Much information had already been gathered in advance, including from those Japanese naturalists who had visited in the preceding decade. All (or most) established local collections—particularly at Rabaul and Kerevat—were abandoned and, in time, destroyed, if not evacuated to Japan.
Collecting, however, did not end with Japanese occupation or both sides’ military operations. With the duration and extent of both, not only was there a considerable demand for biological knowledge but, in addition, many individual servicemen would collect organisms on their own account. A wide range of areas as well as biota were thus sampled. Some lots did not survive the war or were otherwise lost, but several important collections have been preserved through deposit.
JAPANESE CONTRIBUTORS
Some insect and plant collections made by Japanese naturalists just before the war, or transported to Japan following their occupation, have been noted in the preceding section. Most lots were obtained in western New Guinea where from early 1942 until 1944 there was comparatively little military action. Circumstances further resulted in a focus on the Vogelkop and neighboring areas (including Jazira Doberai, Bomberai, and the Wandammen Peninsula). The most considerable contributions were in entomology. M. Satake studied natural history in general in 1942 and 1943, particularly in the Wandammen Peninsula and the adjacent Bird’s Neck, later publishing a book in Japanese (1963, Tokyo). Dr S. Issiki collected insects in western New Guinea including the Vogelkop (Windesi, Majosi, and, in the Wandammen Peninsula, Wasior) and on Rumberpon Island (Taipei; partly reported upon by Gressitt). Professor Toyohi Okada was at Aitape as a soldier, presumably collecting insects. Yoko-oji collected birds at Manokwari, 1942–1944 (Tokyo; all but seven destroyed).
The main botanical field contribution was by Takasi Tuyama (1943, Vogelkop and Yapen; bryophytes and other plants, Tokyo) but of lasting value has been the already-mentioned series of papers on the 1940 collections by R. Kanehira and S. Hatusima—many worked up and published during this period, with others perhaps elaborated. The two men’s retreat from Bogor, Indonesia, in 1945, where both had been active for some three years, as well as the surrender of Formosa (where Kanehira had been a professor in forest botany) and adverse conditions in Japan unfortunately brought a premature end to this project. Some further novelties