The Existential Limits of Reason. Vladislav Pedder
on the nature of human behavior, challenging traditional views on free will and moral responsibility.
Neurobiological Evidence
Sapolsky refers to the research of Michael Gazzaniga, who worked with patients with a split corpus callosum to demonstrate the absence of free will. Patients with separated hemispheres of the brain exhibited striking examples of how consciousness interprets and explains actions that were not actually the result of conscious decision-making. When one hemisphere performs an action, the patient is not always able to explain why it occurred. Gazzaniga found that the left hemisphere of the brain, which is associated with speech and explanation, often fabricates justifications for actions performed by the right hemisphere. This supports the notion that our consciousness is not always connected to the actual decision-making process.
“Neurobiology shows that often we are unaware of the true causes of our behavior. When the left hemisphere explains the actions of the right, it does so based on its perception, not the actual caus3” (Determined: A Science of Life Without Free Will, p. 45).
This example illustrates the idea that we perceive ourselves as free agents, but in reality, many of our decisions and actions are the result of unconscious processes.
Illusion of Free Will
One of the central aspects of the book is the concept of the “illusion of free will.” Sapolsky argues that, despite our belief in free choice, all of our decisions are actually determined by biological, neurobiological, and social factors. We perceive ourselves as free agents because we are unaware of the entire chain of mechanisms that actually lead to our behavior. Sapolsky uses the metaphor of “illusion”: we see ourselves as free agents because we fail to notice the deeper mechanisms that influence our actions.
“We believe that we control our actions because we don’t see the chain of biological factors that lead to our decisions. It’s simply an illusion that we make decisions consciously” (Determined: A Science of Life Without Free Will, p. 98).
He provides examples where reactions to external stimuli occur before we become aware of them. For instance, if a person faces danger, their body may immediately react based on instinctive responses (such as an increase in adrenaline) before they consciously realize what has happened. This confirms that our behavior is often predetermined by unconscious reactions occurring in our brain..
Генетика и влияние на поведение
Сапольски также подчеркивает важность генетики в детерминированности нашего поведения. Он приводит примеры генетических мутаций, таких как изменения в гене MAOA, который связан с повышенной склонностью к агрессии. Это генетическое влияние может существенно изменять поведение, и, по мнению Сапольски, такие данные показывают, что наша личность и поведение во многом предопределены нашим геном, а не являются результатом свободного выбора.
“Генетика вносит большой вклад в формирование нашей личности. Даже такие черты, как склонность к агрессии, могут быть предопределены нашими генами” (Determined: A Science of Life Without Free Will, с. 127).
Влияние окружения и воспитания
Окружение и воспитание также играют значительную роль в формировании нашего поведения. Сапольски акцентирует внимание на том, как стрессовые события могут сильно повлиять на принятие решений. В частности, стресс может снизить нашу способность к рациональному мышлению, делая нас более склонными к импульсивным решениям. Это также подтверждает, что наши действия во многом предопределены внешними обстоятельствами, а не свободной волей.
“Когда мы находимся под стрессом, наш мозг начинает работать иначе, что делает нас более склонными к агрессии или импульсивным поступкам. Это означает, что даже в моменты напряжения наши действия детерминированы” (Determined: A Science of Life Without Free Will, p. 140).
The Role of Neuropeptides and Hormones in Behavior
Sapolsky provides an in-depth discussion on how hormones, such as oxytocin, can significantly influence our social interactions. He presents examples illustrating how an increase in oxytocin levels can make individuals more trusting and altruistic, whereas a decrease can lead to aggression and distrust.
“Hormones such as oxytocin play a crucial role in our behavior. We cannot control their levels, and it is often these biochemical factors that determine how we relate to others” (Determined: A Science of Life Without Free Will, p. 165).
Decoherence and Classical Reality
Quantum decoherence refers to the loss of quantum coherence. It has been studied to understand how quantum systems transition into states that can be described using classical mechanics4. This theory, which emerged as an attempt to extend the understanding of quantum mechanics, has evolved in several directions, with experimental research confirming some key aspects.
At the macroscopic level, quantum effects become “blurred” due to the interaction of quantum systems with the surrounding environment. This process, known as decoherence, explains why the macroscopic world appears strictly deterministic.
Decoherence demonstrates that quantum systems transition into states that, from the observer’s perspective, appear classically determined. Thus, quantum uncertainty does not “penetrate” the macroscopic world, where Newtonian laws prevail.
Bell’s Experiment
Bell’s experiment demonstrates that quantum mechanics violates Bell’s inequalities, indicating the presence of quantum nonlocality. This phenomenon is often interpreted as a challenge to classical notions of determinism. However, Sapolsky emphasizes that even quantum nonlocality does not provide “free will”, as the outcomes remain entirely dependent on the system’s parameters and its initial state.
According to Sapolsky, misinterpretations of quantum nonlocality arise from the assumption that the randomness of quantum events allows for the existence of a will independent of deterministic factors. However, as he points out, quantum randomness does not make events free; it merely makes them unpredictable.
Physical Determinism and System
The quotes in the book are taken from Russian translations and may differ slightly from the originals. This is due to the fact that I did not have the original texts at hand while writing this book.
Coherence in physics refers to the correlation (consistency) of multiple oscillatory or wave processes over time, which manifests when they interfere. Oscillations are considered coherent if the phase difference between them remains constant over time, resulting in a combined oscillation of the same frequency. A classical example of two coherent oscillations is two sinusoidal waves of identical frequency. From the perspective of quantum theory, decoherence represents the collapse of the wave function due to interaction with the environment. The process of decoherence is a crucial component of the thought experiment proposed by Erwin Schrödinger, in which he sought to demonstrate the incompleteness of quantum mechanics in describing the transition from subatomic systems to macroscopic ones.