Bribes, Bullets, and Intimidation. Julie Marie Bunck
respects, they have contrasted markedly in others.31 Each society has provided trafficking organizations and also antidrug policy makers with a particular set of bridge-favoring and disfavoring factors, and while threads of common color reappear, a singular pattern has marked each country.32
The Central American experience suggests that, to analyze bridge-state trafficking, one must first grasp the social, economic, and political contexts in which traffickers have been operating, and one must thus explore not simply the commonalities but the many ways in which a region’s bridge states have differed. Rather than being confined to operating in a single type of bridge state, drug organizations have shown themselves to be highly adaptable: they have instituted successful trafficking schemes in a range of settings. Thus, as drug syndicates have considered where to concentrate their efforts, the profile of each country has helped to determine the speed with which drug trafficking has taken hold; the manner in which it has evolved; the amounts of different drugs that have been transshipped; and the effectiveness, or lack thereof, of antidrug efforts.
The Principal Drugs Trafficked via Central America
Over the years smugglers have succeeded in slipping through Central America sizable amounts of three primary illicit drugs: marijuana, heroin, and cocaine. Though the particular methods and routes to market have differed, the trail has normally led back to Colombia, which has exported the vast majority of all the psychoactive substances transshipped through the region. However, the passage of each of these drugs has had distinctive features. The period and the ways in which trafficking gathered momentum have by no means been identical, nor have government institutions been equally affected.
Central American Marijuana Trafficking
Marijuana trafficking within Central America has taken two principal forms: direct exports and transshipment of Colombian cannabis. Although much of the marijuana grown in the region is also consumed there—mostly within the producer state, though occasionally in neighboring ones—drug rings have exported some to North America. Transnational criminals have also found it profitable to transport through Central America significant quantities of high-quality Colombian marijuana. While in the mid-twentieth century modest amounts of other drugs transited the region, marijuana was the first to pass through in large shipments. Successful marijuana organizations thus blazed paths, initiated smuggling methods, marshaled networks of associates, and developed other relevant expertise in moving drugs toward market.
The principal psychoactive chemical in Cannabis sativa L, or marijuana, is tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), and marijuana potency is measured by the THC percentage found in the dried plants. Traditionally, Mexican varieties of marijuana have tended to be among the cheapest, lowest grade, and most common. Quality has improved over time, as traffickers in Mexico invested in better strains, and a few notable varieties—Acapulco Gold, Zacatecas Purple, Michoacán, and Popo Oro among them—gained early and enthusiastic followings among consumers. However, even after years of effort to develop enhanced Mexican marijuana, its average THC level, as seized along the U.S. border in 2003, measured only 4.8 percent.33
In contrast, more potent Colombian marijuana has regularly fetched the highest prices in the North American market.34 In the 1970s, after eradication curbed Mexican output and the use of paraquat in aerial spraying frightened consumers, American traffickers stimulated the growth of a Colombian marijuana industry by providing seeds, financing, and technical assistance.35 The cannabis cultivated in the lower Sierra Nevadas on Colombia’s Guajira Peninsula then quickly gained an excellent international reputation.36 Users came to value such varieties as Red Dot, Red Point, and San Miguelito, and the pale yellow strains like Santa Marta Gold and Blue Sky Blonde.37
In stark contrast the THC for most Central American marijuana has tended to be rather low, and cannabis from the region has resembled cheap Mexican varieties or the darker and more commonplace strains, such as Mango Viche and La Negra, grown at lower altitudes in southern Colombia. International demand for Central American marijuana has generally been weak. While Costa Rica and Guatemala have occasionally exported the drug, the only Central American strains of marijuana for which significant foreign markets have developed are Belize Breeze and a variant of Red Dot known as Panama Red. During the 1980s cannabis production in Belize crescendoed, as it moved for a period into the first rank of marijuana-exporting countries. And, though in much smaller quantities, producers on Panama’s Las Perlas archipelago have long cultivated some marijuana for export.
To move Central American cannabis to the North American market, most traffickers have preferred maritime shipments, though smuggling networks once also transported much Belizean marijuana by small plane. As for South American marijuana, while some aerial trafficking has occurred, drug networks have regularly shipped Colombian marijuana to Mexico to be exported overland into the United States, while routing other shipments toward western Europe.38 Most commonly, however, numerous vessels carrying marijuana through the Caribbean basin have aimed directly for the United States. Rather than employing Colombian vessels, which have the signal drawback of flying the flag of a leading drug-producing state, smuggling rings have often preferred to use boats registered elsewhere, such as Panama or Honduras. Typically older seventy- to ninety-foot fishing trawlers, characterized by extra fuel drums on deck and relatively large crews to assist in unloading, such “mother ships” have sometimes passed through Caribbean and Pacific waters off the Central American coasts.39
Map 1.2
The U.S. Coast Guard has led international efforts to stem maritime drug passage. Given time and resource constraints and the large number of legitimate commercial ships, making a bust at sea can be challenging without prior intelligence on the vessel, its route, and even the location on board of the drugs.40 Nevertheless, in their continuous patrols of U.S. territorial waters and of the Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean Sea, and Pacific Ocean, coast guard ships have routinely attempted to do so. Coast guard officials (including navy ships with a coast guard officer on board) are authorized to stop and inspect any boat flying the U.S. flag or located in U.S. territorial waters, that is, within twelve miles of the shore of the United States or one of its possessions. In international waters, however, given the venerable doctrine of freedom of the seas, U.S. authorities cannot board vessels of another state at will. When a coast guard crew suspects drug trafficking, it radios the ship, requesting permission to board to check its documentation or seaworthiness. Signs of drug trafficking might be spotted in the ensuing inspection. If the ship’s master refuses boarding privileges or if suspicious matters emerge during the inspection, the coast guard can check information about the vessel with authorities from the flag state. If drug-trafficking suspicions remain, the coast guard may request a Statement of No Objection through the U.S. Department of State, from the country in which the ship is registered, to board, inspect, and enforce appropriate criminal laws on the vessel, using force if necessary.41
Central American states have almost invariably cooperated in issuing these statements. Their governments have also been engaged in implementing antidrug policies of various sorts, and collaborating in major seizures can help officials appear vigilant and competent, domestically and internationally. Central American governments have not wanted to seem to be shielding traffickers, which might cause political trouble at home and antagonize the U.S. government, possibly threatening the continued flow of development assistance. Nevertheless,