Baleen Basketry of the North Alaskan Eskimo. Molly Lee
first whalers came intermittently to the Arctic in search of bowhead baleen, but contact intensified after 1885, with the introduction of steam-powered whaling vessels (Leet 1974). About the same time some ships began wintering over at Point Hope for earlier access to the migrating herds, and onshore whaling stations were established in the region, primarily those at Point Hope and Point Barrow (Burch 1971; Bockstoce 1977). In the 1890s the first schools and missions were founded in the arctic communities, and within a generation, Christianity had been grafted onto the existing belief system (Milan 1964; Burch 1971).
The Yankee whaling period also brought about changes in the subsistence patterns and material culture in North Alaska. Although the Eskimos continued to hunt for the bulk of their food, modern firearms soon replaced their traditional hunting weapons. About the same time, north Alaskans began to develop a taste for imported foodstuffs3 such as coffee, tea, sugar, and flour; and soon, foreign household wares of metal and tin displaced those made locally of wood, bone, and pottery (Jenness 1918; Spencer 1959).
Before the 1950s, when currency came into common use (VanStone 1962), the Eskimos secured imported goods through barter. During the Yankee whaling period, baleen was their most valuable exchange commodity (Murdoch 1892). North Alaskans hired as crew members were sometimes paid in “whalebone” (Bailey 1921). Another resource for exchange was handmade objects of ivory and other indigenous materials. Long accustomed to trade with outside groups, Eskimos elsewhere in Alaska had as early as the eighteenth century made articles, such as model kayaks, especially for the nonnative market (Ray 1980). At Barrow they had begun making masks and ivory carvings expressly for this purpose by 1881 (Murdoch 1892).
Nevertheless, east of Point Hope, arts and crafts production has never flourished to the same extent as farther south around the Bering Sea (Ray 1977). In North Alaska, except in cases of old age or infirmity, arts production has been supplemental rather than full-time. Here, participation in arts and crafts occupations has increased only during economic depressions when other means of obtaining trade goods were lacking (Spencer 1959; Graburn 1979).
Between 1908 and 1914, commercial whaling gradually ceased. The drastic depletion of the bowheads4 and the invention of baleen substitutes such as spring steel and celluloid both contributed to its demise. In 1907 baleen was selling on the American market for $5 a pound; by 1912 the price had plummeted to 7 ½ cents, and soon after 1914 American whaling stopped entirely (Brower 1942; VanStone 1958; Bockstoce 1977, 1980). Subsequently, the Eskimos resumed both their traditional subsistence patterns and the cooperative social patterns they entailed (Spencer 1959). Even so, things were never again the same. During the whaling period, imported goods were incorporated into everyday life. A second economy, based on trade, now supplemented subsistence hunting; ever since, comfort and well-being in North Alaska have required successful participation in both these networks (VanStone 1962; Hippler 1969). Immediately following the collapse of Yankee whaling, the Eskimos endured a period of hardship. Itinerant trade vessels and local trading stations provided continued access to the coveted goods, but baleen, once so valuable as barter, now was worthless (Brower 1942).
Between about 1918 and 1929, the fur trade filled the economic vacuum to some extent, but this option was soon closed by the Great Depression, recognition of the Soviet Union, and the subsequent repeal of the embargo on Russian furs (Stuck 1920; Spencer 1959). In the next decade, arts and crafts became the most reliable trade resource (Spencer 1959). During this time production of baleen baskets began in earnest.
The Eskimos’ contact with the outside world continued in the form of visits from government officials and longer stays of schoolteachers and missionaries (VanStone 1962; Milan 1964). But not until the onset of World War II did economic relief first glimmer in the arctic villages. So pervasive was the cultural upheaval that the war years there have been described as “a Rubicon with the past” (Hughes 1965). Military bases were established along the arctic coast, and in 1946, at the Barrow installation, Eskimos were first hired as full-time wage employees (Roberts 1954). In the intervening years, local employment opportunities have continued to rise. Between 1953 and 1982 the population of Barrow has doubled. With more than 2,800 residents in 1982, it is the largest Eskimo settlement in the world.
The 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s have seen an ever narrowing gap between Eskimo and Western cultures. Besides wage employment, expanded public education, development of the Prudhoe Bay oil fields, construction of the Trans-Alaska Pipeline System, and enactment of the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act have all contributed to the changes. Among them are a shift from extended family groups to conjugal family units (Burch 1975), and the need of wage earners to confine subsistence hunting to weekends and vacations (Chance 1966; Nelson 1969).
Despite these cataclysmic changes the rudiments of Eskimo culture survive. Bowhead whaling is still the major yearly event and now the only cooperative activity left to reinforce group cohesion in the arctic villages (Marquette 1977). But the continuity subsistence whaling once provided is now severely threatened. The balance maintained between the Eskimos and bowheads for a thousand years was overturned in half a century of Yankee depredations. Future continuance of Eskimo whaling will depend on a satisfactory resolution to the present conflict5 between the bowhead’s endangered status and the fragile condition of Eskimo society, whose members continue to look to the whale for a source of bodily nourishment and a sense of cultural identity.
The Historical and Formal Development of Baleen Baskets
The history of baleen basketmaking spans over half the present century. Like other arts, it has experienced several distinct phases: establishment, spread and florescence, and gradual decline. Overall, baleen basketmaking’s history corroborates the inverse relationship between arts and crafts production and availability of other income sources suggested by Spencer (1959). Baleen basketmaking began and flourished during the depressed period following Yankee whaling, fell off when employment opportunities in the Arctic increased during World War II, and is living out a decline in the recent construction booms (Roberts 1954; Alaska Department of Labor 1960–80).
FORMATIVE YEARS, CA. 1915–1930
Beginnings
Конец ознакомительного фрагмента.
Текст предоставлен ООО «ЛитРес».
Прочитайте эту книгу целиком, купив полную легальную версию на ЛитРес.
Безопасно оплатить книгу можно банковской картой Visa, MasterCard, Maestro, со счета мобильного телефона, с платежного терминала, в салоне МТС или Связной, через PayPal, WebMoney, Яндекс.Деньги, QIWI Кошелек, бонусными картами или другим удобным Вам способом.