Analyzing Qualitative Data. Graham R Gibbs
addresses the analysis of visual materials. It is also complemented by chapters in the books on ethnography by Coffey (2018), on interviews by Brinkmann and Kvale (2018), and on focus groups by Barbour (2018), which address particular problems of analyzing the data resulting from each method. Finally the new book on grounded theory by Flick (2018d) also complements its perspectives. A major addition to the scope of the other books in The SAGE Qualitative Research Kit is that this book pays a lot of attention to using computers in qualitative research and on writing in the context of creating data (like writing notes or memos and research diaries). It also gives helpful suggestions for transcription of verbal data. Its suggestions regarding ethics and quality of analysis add to the books by Flick (2018b, 2018c) on designing and managing quality in the research process. For its second edition, Analyzing Qualitative Data has been updated throughout and extended, so that it also is linked to the new versions and new books in the new edition of The SAGE Qualitative Research Kit.
Chapter One The Nature of Qualitative Analysis
Contents
Analysis 2
Qualitative data 3
Practicalities of qualitative analysis 4
Methodology 5
The aim of qualitative analysis 10
Ethics 13
Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should:
see that some features of qualitative analysis are distinctive, but at the same time they are features over which there is often disagreement between qualitative researchers;
know about some of the different understandings of qualitative research; and
understand that they bear upon analysis and map out the limits of the qualitative ‘territory’, and understand some of the distinctive styles and approaches qualitative analysts adopt.
Analysis
The idea of analysis implies some kind of transformation. You start with some (often voluminous) collection of qualitative data and then you process it, through analytic procedures, into a clear, understandable, insightful, trustworthy and even original analysis. There is disagreement even about this transformation. Some researchers focus on the ‘office’ processes involved; the sorting, retrieving, indexing and handling of qualitative data, usually with some discussion of how these processes can be used to generate analytic ideas (Maykut and Morehouse, 2001; Miles et al., 2013; Spencer et al., 2014). The processes are designed to deal with the sheer amount of data that is created in qualitative research, in interview transcripts (see Brinkmann and Kvale, 2018), field notes (see Coffey, 2018), collected documents, video and audio recordings (see Rapley, 2018), etc. Sorting and searching through all these data while at the same time creating a consistent and perceptive analysis that remains grounded in that data – that is, so the data provide good supporting evidence – is a major headache. It requires good organization and a structured approach to the data. This is one of the reasons why CAQDAS, computer-assisted qualitative data analysis, has become so popular. The software doesn’t do the thinking for you, but it helps enormously with these ‘office’ processes.
Other researchers emphasize the idea that analysis involves interpretation and retelling and that it is imaginative and speculative (Denzin, 1997; Giorgi and Giorgi, 2003; Mishler, 1986; Riessman, 1993). There are a range of approaches involved here including conversation and discourse analysis (see Rapley, 2018), some forms of phenomenology, biographical and narrative approaches as well as recent ethnographic methods (see Coffey, 2018). These approaches emphasize the idea that qualitative data are meaningful and need to be interpreted in analysis, not just to reveal the range of subject matter people are talking about but also to recognize and analyze the ways in which they frame and mould their communications and even the ways these communications frame and mould them and their actions.
Most writers about qualitative data analysis recognize that it involves both these aspects of analysis; data handling and interpretation (Coffey and Atkinson, 1996; Flick, 2014, 2018b; Mason, 2002; Bazeley, 2013). Sometimes they are used simultaneously, but often they are used in sequence starting with the use of the ‘office’ procedures then moving to the reduction of data into summaries or displays, before finishing with interpretative analysis and drawing conclusions.
Qualitative data
As I have suggested above, qualitative data are essentially meaningful, but aside from that they show a great diversity. They don’t include counts and measures, but they do include just about any form of human communication – written, audio or visual – behaviour, symbolism or cultural artefacts. This includes any of the following:
individual and focus group interviews and their transcripts;
ethnographic participant observation;
email;
web pages;
advertisements – printed, film or TV;
video recordings of TV broadcasts;
video diaries;
videos of interviews and focus groups;
video recordings of laboratory sessions;
records of meetings and other organizational documents;
various documents such as books and magazines;
diaries;
online discussion group conversations;
online social networking pages;
online news libraries;
still photos;
film;
home videos.
The most common form of qualitative data used in analysis is text; this can either be a transcription from interviews or field notes from ethnographic work or other kinds of documents. Most audio and video data are transformed into text to be analyzed. The reason for this is that text is an easy form of recording that can be dealt with using the ‘office’ techniques mentioned above. However, with the development of digital audio and video recordings and the availability of software to sort, index and retrieve them, the need and desire to transcribe might be reduced in the future. Moreover, using video data preserves some of the visual aspects of the data that are often lost when conversations are transcribed. Nevertheless, when it comes to the fluent, rapid and accurate examination of qualitative data, most of us still find it easiest when dealing with textual data.
Practicalities of qualitative analysis
Qualitative analysis involves two activities: first developing an awareness of the kinds of data that can be examined and how they can be described and explained, and, second, a number of practical activities that assist with the kinds of data and the large amounts of it that need to be examined. The latter are what I refer to as the practicalities of qualitative analysis. I will discuss these more in the rest of the book, but two of them distinguish qualitative analysis from other approaches
Merging collection and analysis
In some kinds of social research you are encouraged to collect all your data before you start any kind of analysis. Qualitative research is different from this because there is no separation of data collection and data analysis. Analysis can, and should start in the field. As you collect your data by interviewing, taking field notes, acquiring documents and so on, you can start your analysis. I examine these issues in more detail in