The Ethical Journalist. Gene Foreman

       Ethics is about discerning between right and wrong and then doing what is right.

       Ancient societies developed systems of ethics that still influence human behavior.

       Though often related, ethics and law differ; law prescribes minimum standards of conduct, and ethics prescribes exemplary conduct.

       A member of a society absorbs its ethical precepts through a process of socialization.

       Our value system – based on the things we prize most – influences how we make moral choices.

       An ethical dilemma demands such a moral choice: a person may have to violate one ethical principle to fulfill another.

       Journalists generally agree that their fundamental ethical principles are to seek truth, serve the public, and maintain independence from the people they report on.

       Journalism, like other professions and institutions, owes society a moral duty called social responsibility.

       In the 1940s, the Hutchins Commission defined journalism’s social responsibility: to provide reliable information for the community.

       An ethical awakening occurred in journalism during the decade beginning in the mid-1970s.

       During this period of reform, many news organizations codified their principles, first addressing conflicts of interest and then refining news-coverage practices.

       Today’s journalism reflects decades of rising professionalism, but the transition to the digital era presents new challenges.

       In the abstract, journalists should avoid becoming involved with the events and the people they cover.

       However, certain situations require journalists to decide whether they should step out of their observer role and become participants.

       In those situations, guidelines can help journalists reach sound decisions about whether to intervene.

       Even as the news media mature and accept social responsibility, the public is increasingly hostile, and that is documented in surveys.

       As a journalist, you should be aware of this hostility and the likely reasons for it.

       You should treat the audience with respect and take complaints seriously; stripping away the rancor, you might find useful lessons.

       The public’s hostility has to be put in perspective; it may not be as bad as it seems.

       As a candidate and president (2015 - 2021), Donald Trump vigorously tested journalism’s habits, tools, and tenets.

       Modifying their reporting practices, journalists adapted to Trump much as earlier generations had adapted to Senator Joseph R. McCarthy. But the transition was not a smooth one.

       To deal with a multitude of false statements, news organizations created fact-checking units and debated whether to use the word lie.

       Coverage of Trump and his administration ranged from hard-hitting investigations to snarky commentary that tended to confirm critics allegations of bias.

       The strengths and weaknesses of four classic ethical theories in the context of editor’s decisions to publish government secrets.

       Rule-based thinking - doing the right thing, even if there are consequences.

       Ends-based thinking - choosing to do what brings the most good to the most people.

       The Golden Rule - treating other people the way you would want to be treated.

       Aristotle’s Golden Mean - finding a moderate solution when the extremes won’t work.

       The practice of journalism typically blends rule-based thinking and ends- based thinking.

       Ethics codes in journalism trace their origins to the early twentieth century, as some editors put word-of-mouth standards into writing.

       Codes adopted by professional associations of journalists are voluntary; codes adopted by news outlets for the direction of their staffs are enforceable.

       Codes can be useful as a part of the decision process, not as a substitute for that process.

       The Society of Professional Journalist’s 2014 revision of its code of ethics is a model for the profession. Its four guiding principles are: seek truth and report it, minimize harm, act independently, and be accountable and transparent.

       A careful decision-making process draws on the practical skills of journalism: gathering facts, analyzing them, and making