The City of God, Volume II. Bishop of Hippo Saint Augustine
because he was foolish. In his case, therefore, folly was the cause of this useful and desirable sorrow, wherewith a man mourns that he is what he ought not to be. But the Stoics maintain not that the fool, but that the wise man, cannot be sorrowful.
But so far as regards this question of mental perturbations, we have answered these philosophers in the ninth book49 of this work, showing that it is rather a verbal than a real dispute, and that they seek contention rather than truth. Among ourselves, according to the sacred Scriptures and sound doctrine, the citizens of the holy city of God, who live according to God in the pilgrimage of this life, both fear and desire, and grieve and rejoice. And because their love is rightly placed, all these affections of theirs are right. They fear eternal punishment, they desire eternal life; they grieve because they themselves groan within themselves, waiting for the adoption, the redemption of their body;50 they rejoice in hope, because there "shall be brought to pass the saying that is written, Death is swallowed up in victory."51 In like manner they fear to sin, they desire to persevere; they grieve in sin, they rejoice in good works. They fear to sin, because they hear that "because iniquity shall abound, the love of many shall wax cold."52 They desire to persevere, because they hear that it is written, "He that endureth to the end shall be saved."53 They grieve for sin, hearing that "If we say that we have no sin, we deceive ourselves, and the truth is not in us."54 They rejoice in good works, because they hear that "the Lord loveth a cheerful giver."55 In like manner, according as they are strong or weak, they fear or desire to be tempted, grieve or rejoice in temptation. They fear to be tempted, because they hear the injunction, "If a man be overtaken in a fault, ye which are spiritual restore such an one in the spirit of meekness; considering thyself, lest thou also be tempted."56 They desire to be tempted, because they hear one of the heroes of the city of God saying, "Examine me, O Lord, and tempt me: try my reins and my heart."57 They grieve in temptations, because they see Peter weeping;58 they rejoice in temptations, because they hear James saying, "My brethren, count it all joy when ye fall into divers temptations."59
And not only on their own account do they experience these emotions, but also on account of those whose deliverance they desire and whose perdition they fear, and whose loss or salvation affects them with grief or with joy. For if we who have come into the Church from among the Gentiles may suitably instance that noble and mighty hero who glories in his infirmities, the teacher (doctor) of the nations in faith and truth, who also laboured more than all his fellow-apostles, and instructed the tribes of God's people by his epistles, which edified not only those of his own time, but all those who were to be gathered in, – that hero, I say, and athlete of Christ, instructed by Him, anointed of His Spirit, crucified with Him, glorious in Him, lawfully maintaining a great conflict on the theatre of this world, and being made a spectacle to angels and men,60 and pressing onwards for the prize of his high calling,61– very joyfully do we with the eyes of faith behold him rejoicing with them that rejoice, and weeping with them that weep;62 though hampered by fightings without and fears within;63 desiring to depart and to be with Christ;64 longing to see the Romans, that he might have some fruit among them as among other Gentiles;65 being jealous over the Corinthians, and fearing in that jealousy lest their minds should be corrupted from the chastity that is in Christ;66 having great heaviness and continual sorrow of heart for the Israelites,67 because they, being ignorant of God's righteousness, and going about to establish their own righteousness, have not submitted themselves unto the righteousness of God;68 and expressing not only his sorrow, but bitter lamentation over some who had formally sinned and had not repented of their uncleanness and fornications.69
If these emotions and affections, arising as they do from the love of what is good and from a holy charity, are to be called vices, then let us allow these emotions which are truly vices to pass under the name of virtues. But since these affections, when they are exercised in a becoming way, follow the guidance of right reason, who will dare to say that they are diseases or vicious passions? Wherefore even the Lord Himself, when He condescended to lead a human life in the form of a slave, had no sin whatever, and yet exercised these emotions where He judged they should be exercised. For as there was in Him a true human body and a true human soul, so was there also a true human emotion. When, therefore, we read in the Gospel that the hard-heartedness of the Jews moved Him to sorrowful indignation,70 that He said, "I am glad for your sakes, to the intent ye may believe,"71 that when about to raise Lazarus He even shed tears,72 that He earnestly desired to eat the passover with His disciples,73 that as His passion drew near His soul was sorrowful,74 these emotions are certainly not falsely ascribed to Him. But as He became man when it pleased Him, so, in the grace of His definite purpose, when it pleased Him He experienced those emotions in His human soul.
But we must further make the admission, that even when these affections are well regulated, and according to God's will, they are peculiar to this life, not to that future life we look for, and that often we yield to them against our will. And thus sometimes we weep in spite of ourselves, being carried beyond ourselves, not indeed by culpable desire, but by praiseworthy charity. In us, therefore, these affections arise from human infirmity; but it was not so with the Lord Jesus, for even His infirmity was the consequence of His power. But so long as we wear the infirmity of this life, we are rather worse men than better if we have none of these emotions at all. For the apostle vituperated and abominated some who, as he said, were "without natural affection."75 The sacred Psalmist also found fault with those of whom he said, "I looked for some to lament with me, and there was none."76 For to be quite free from pain while we are in this place of misery is only purchased, as one of this world's literati perceived and remarked,77 at the price of blunted sensibilities both of mind and body. And therefore that which the Greeks call ἀπάθεια, and what the Latins would call, if their language would allow them, "impassibilitas," if it be taken to mean an impassibility of spirit and not of body, or, in other words, a freedom from those emotions which are contrary to reason and disturb the mind, then it is obviously a good and most desirable quality, but it is not one which is attainable in this life. For the words of the apostle are the confession, not of the common herd, but of the eminently pious, just, and holy men: "If we say we have no sin, we deceive ourselves, and the truth is not in us."78 When there shall be no sin in a man, then there shall be this ἀπάθεια. At present it is enough if we live without crime; and he who thinks he lives without sin puts aside not sin, but pardon. And if that is to be called apathy, where the mind is the subject of no emotion, then who would not consider this insensibility to be worse than all vices? It may, indeed, reasonably be maintained that the perfect blessedness we hope for shall be free from all sting of fear or sadness; but who that is not quite lost to truth would say that neither love nor joy shall be experienced there? But if by apathy a condition be meant in which no fear terrifies nor any pain annoys, we must in this life renounce
C. 4, 5.
Rom. viii. 23.
1 Cor. xv. 54.
Matt. xxiv. 12.
Matt. x. 22.
1 John i. 8.
2 Cor. ix. 7.
Gal. vi. 1.
Ps. xxvi. 2.
Matt. xxvi. 75.
Jas. i. 2.
1 Cor. iv. 9.
Phil. iii. 14.
Rom. xii. 15.
2 Cor. vii. 5.
Phil. i. 23.
Rom. i. 11-13.
2 Cor. xi. 1-3.
Rom. ix. 2.
Rom. x. 3.
2 Cor. xii. 21.
Mark iii. 5.
John xi. 15.
John xi. 35.
Luke xxii. 15.
Matt. xxvi. 38.
Rom. i. 31.
Ps. lxix. 20.
Crantor, an Academic philosopher quoted by Cicero,
1 John i. 8.