Island Life; Or, The Phenomena and Causes of Insular Faunas and Floras. Alfred Russel Wallace
the Cretaceous formation. We may also note that the Maestricht beds in Belgium and the Faxoe chalk in Denmark are both highly coralline, the latter being, in fact, as completely composed of corals as a modern coral-reef; so that we have here a clear indication of the source whence the white calcareous mud was derived which forms the basis of chalk. If we suppose that during this period the comparatively shallow sea-bottom between Scandinavia and Greenland was elevated, forming a land connection between these countries, the result would be that a large portion of the Gulf Stream would be diverted into the inland European sea, and would bring with it that abundance of Globigerinæ, and other Foraminifera, which form such an important constituent of chalk. This sea was probably bordered with islands and coral-reefs, and if no very large rivers flowed into it we should have all the conditions for the production of the true chalk, as well as the other members of the Cretaceous formation. The products of the denudation of its shores and islands would form the various sandstones, marls, and clays, which would be deposited almost wholly within a few miles of its coasts; while the great central sea, perhaps at no time more than a few thousand feet deep and often much less, would receive only the impalpable mud of the coral-reefs and the constantly falling tests of Foraminifera. These would imbed and preserve for us the numerous echinoderms, sponges, and mollusca, which lived upon the bottom, the fishes and turtles which swam in its waters, and sometimes the winged reptiles that flew overhead. The abundance of ammonites, and other cephalopods, in the chalk, is another indication that the water in which they lived was not very deep, since Dr. S. P. Woodward thinks that these organisms were limited to a depth of about thirty fathoms.
The best example of the modern formation of chalk is perhaps to be found on the coasts of sub-tropical North America, as described in the following passage:—
"The observations of Pourtales show that the steep banks of Bahama are covered with soft white lime mud. The lime-bottom, which consists almost entirely of Polythalamia, covers in greater depths the entire channel of Florida. This formation extends without interruption over the whole bed of the Gulf Stream in the Gulf of Mexico, and is continued along the Atlantic coast of America. The commonest genera met with in this deposit are Globigerina, Rotalia cultrata in large numbers, several Textilariæ, Marginulinæ, &c. Beside these, small free corals, Alcyonidæ, Ophiuræ, Mollusca, Crustacea, small fishes, &c., are found living in these depths. The whole sea-bottom appears to be covered with a vast deposit of white chalk still in formation."27
There is yet another consideration which seems to have been altogether overlooked by those who suppose that a deep and open island-studded ocean occupied the place of Europe in Cretaceous times. No fact is more certain than the considerable break, indicative of a great lapse of time, intervening between the Cretaceous and Tertiary formations. A few deposits of intermediate age have indeed been found, but these have been generally allocated either with the Chalk or the Eocene, leaving the gap almost as pronounced as before. Now, what does this gap mean? It implies that when the deposition of the various Cretaceous beds of Europe came to an end they were raised above the sea-level and subject to extensive denudation, and that for a long but unknown period no extensive portion of what is now European land was below the sea-level. It was only when this period terminated that large areas in several parts of Europe became submerged and received the earliest Tertiary deposits known as Eocene. If, therefore, Europe at the close of the Cretaceous period was generally identical with what it is now, and perhaps even more extensive, it is absurd to suppose that it was all, or nearly all, under water during that period; or in fact, that any part of it was submerged, except those areas on which we actually find Cretaceous deposits, or where we have good reason to believe they have existed; and even these need not have been all under water at the same time.
The several considerations now adduced are, I think, sufficient to show that the view put forth by some naturalists (and which has met with a somewhat hasty acceptance by geologists) that our white chalk is an oceanic formation strictly comparable with that now forming at depths of a thousand fathoms and upwards in the centre of the Atlantic, gives a totally erroneous idea of the actual condition of Europe during that period. Instead of being a wide ocean, with a few scattered islands, comparable to some parts of the Pacific, it formed as truly a portion of the great northern continent as it does now, although the inland seas of that epoch may have been more extensive and more numerous than they are at the present day.28
Fresh-water and Shore Deposits as Proving the Permanence of Continents.—The view here maintained, that all known marine deposits have been formed near the coasts of continents and islands, and that our actual continents have been in continuous existence under variously modified forms during the whole period of known geological history, is further supported by another and totally distinct series of facts. In almost every period of geology, and in all the continents which have been well examined, there are found lacustrine, estuarine, or shore deposits, containing the remains of land animals or plants, thus demonstrating the continuous existence of extensive land areas on or adjoining the sites of our present continents. Beginning with the Miocene, or Middle Tertiary period, we have such deposits with remains of land-animals, or plants, in Devonshire and Scotland, in France, Switzerland, Germany, Croatia, Vienna, Greece, North India, Central India, Burmah, North America, both east and west of the Rocky Mountains, Greenland, and other parts of the Arctic regions. In the older Eocene period similar formations are widely spread in the south of England, in France, and to an enormous extent on the central plateau of North America; while in the eastern states, from Maryland to Alabama, there are extensive marine deposits of the same age, which, from the abundance of fossil remains of a large cetacean (Zeuglodon), must have been formed in shallow gulfs or estuaries where these huge animals were stranded. Going back to the Cretaceous formation we have the same indications of persisting lands in the rich plant-beds of Aix-la-Chapelle, and a few other localities on the Continent, as well as in coniferous fruits from the Gault of Folkestone; while in North America cretaceous plant-beds occur in New Jersey, Alabama, Kansas, the sources of the Missouri, the Rocky Mountains from New Mexico to the Arctic Ocean, Alaska, California, and in Greenland and Spitzbergen; while birds and land reptiles are found in the Cretaceous deposits of Colorado and other districts near the centre of the Continent. Fresh-water deposits of this age are also found on the coast of Brazil. In the lower part of this formation we have the fresh-water Wealden deposits of England, extending into France, Hanover, and Westphalia. In the older Oolite or Jurassic formation we have abundant proofs of continental conditions in the fresh-water and "dirt"-beds of the Purbecks in the south of England, with plants, insects and mammals; the Bavarian lithographic stone, with fossil birds and insects; the earlier "forest marble" of Wiltshire, with ripple-marks, wood, and broken shells, indicative of an extensive beach; the Stonesfield slate, with plants, insects, and marsupials; and the Oolitic coal of Yorkshire and Sutherlandshire. Beds of the same age occur in the Rocky Mountains of North America, containing abundance of Dinosaurians and other reptiles, among which is the Atlantosaurus, the largest land-animal yet known to have existed on the earth. Professor O. C. Marsh describes it as having been between fifty and sixty feet long, and when standing erect at least thirty feet high!29 Such monsters could hardly have been developed except in an extensive land area. A small mammal, Dryolestes, has been discovered in the same deposits. A rich Jurassic flora has also been found in East Siberia and the Amur valley. The older Triassic deposits are very extensively developed in America, and both in the Connecticut valley and the Rocky Mountains show tracks or remains of land reptiles, amphibians and mammalia, while coalfields of the same age in Virginia and Carolina produce abundance of plants. Here too are found the ancient mammal, Microlestes, of Wurtemberg, with the ferns, conifers, and Labyrinthodonts of the Bunter Sandstone in Germany; while the beds of rock-salt in this formation, both in England and in many parts of the Continent, could only have been formed in inland seas or lakes, and thus equally demonstrate continental conditions.
We now pass into the oldest or Palæozoic formations, but find no diminution in the proofs of continental conditions. The Permian formation has a rich flora often producing coal in England, France, Saxony, Thuringia, Silesia, and Eastern Russia. Coalfields of the same age occur in Ohio in North America. In the still more ancient Carboniferous formation we find the most remarkable proofs of the existence of our present land masses at that remote epoch, in the wonderful extension of coal beds in all the
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