How to Write Clearly: Rules and Exercises on English Composition. Abbott Edwin Abbott
Report a speech in the First Person, where necessary to avoid ambiguity.
6 a. Use the Third Person where the exact words of the speaker are not intended to be given.
6 b. Omission of "that" in a speech in the Third Person.
7. When you use a Participle implying "when," "while," "though," or "that," show clearly by the context what is implied.
8. When using the Relative Pronoun, use "who" or "which," if the meaning is "and he" or "and it," "for he" or "for it." In other cases use "that," if euphony allows. Exceptions.
9. Do not use "and which" for "which."
10. Equivalents for the Relative: (a) Participle or Adjective; (b) Infinitive; (c) "Whereby," "whereto," &c.; (d) "If a man;" (e) "And he," "and this," &c.; (f) "what;" (g) omission of Relative.
10 a'. Repeat the Antecedent before the Relative, where the non-repetition causes any ambiguity. See 38.
11. Use particular for general terms. Avoid abstract Nouns.
11 a. Avoid Verbal Nouns where Verbs can be used.
12. Use particular persons instead of a class.
13. Use metaphor instead of literal statement.
14. Do not confuse metaphor.
14 a. Do not mix metaphor with literal statement.
14 b. Do not use poetic metaphor to illustrate a prosaic subject.
ORDER OF WORDS IN A SENTENCE
15. Emphatic words must stand in emphatic positions; i.e., for the most part, at the beginning or the end of the sentence.
15 a. Unemphatic words must, as a rule, be kept from the end. Exceptions.
15 b. An interrogation sometimes gives emphasis.
16. The Subject, if unusually emphatic, should often be transferred from the beginning of the sentence.
17. The Object is sometimes placed before the Verb for emphasis.
18. Where several words are emphatic, make it clear which is the most emphatic. Emphasis can sometimes be given by adding an epithet, or an intensifying word.
19. Words should be as near as possible to the words with which they are grammatically connected.
20. Adverbs should be placed next to the words they are intended to qualify.
21. "Only"; the strict rule is that "only" should be placed before the word it affects.
22. When "not only" precedes "but also," see that each is followed by the same part of speech.
23. "At least," "always," and other adverbial adjuncts, sometimes produce ambiguity.
24. Nouns should be placed near the Nouns that they define.
25. Pronouns should follow the Nouns to which they refer, without the intervention of any other Noun.
26. Clauses that are grammatically connected should be kept as close together as possible. Avoid parentheses. But see 55.
27. In conditional sentences, the antecedent or "if-clauses" must be kept distinct from the consequent clauses.
28. Dependent clauses preceded by "that" should be kept distinct from those that are independent.
29. Where there are several infinitives, those that are dependent on the same word must be kept distinct from those that are not.
30. The principle of Suspense.
30 a. It is a violation of the principle of suspense to introduce unexpectedly at the end of a long sentence, some short and unemphatic clause beginning with (a) "not," (b) "which."
31. Suspense must not be excessive.
32. In a sentence with "if," "when," "though," &c., put the "if-clause," antecedent, or protasis, first.
33. Suspense is gained by placing a Participle or Adjective, that qualifies the Subject, before the Subject.
34. Suspensive Conjunctions, e.g. "either," "not only," "on the one hand," &c., add clearness.
35. Repeat the Subject, where its omission would cause obscurity or ambiguity.
36. Repeat a Preposition after an intervening Conjunction, especially if a Verb and an Object also intervene.
37. Repeat Conjunctions, Auxiliary Verbs, and Pronominal Adjectives.
37 a. Repeat Verbs after the Conjunctions "than," "as," &c.
38. Repeat the Subject, or some other emphatic word, or a summary of what has been said, if the sentence is so long that it is difficult to keep the thread of meaning unbroken.
39. Clearness is increased, when the beginning of the sentence prepares the way for the middle, and the middle for the end, the whole forming a kind of ascent. This ascent is called "climax."
40. When the thought is expected to ascend, but descends, feebleness, and sometimes confusion, is the result. The descent is called "bathos."
40 a. A new construction should not be introduced unexpectedly.
41. Antithesis adds force and often clearness.
42. Epigram.
43. Let each sentence have one, and only one, principal subject of thought. Avoid heterogeneous sentences.
44. The connection between different sentences must be kept up by Adverbs used as Conjunctions, or by means of some other connecting words at the beginning of the sentence.
45. The connection between two long sentences or paragraphs sometimes requires a short intervening sentence showing the transition of thought.
II. BREVITY
46. Metaphor is briefer than literal statement.
47. General terms are briefer, though less forcible, than particular terms.
47 a. A phrase may sometimes be expressed by a word.
48. Participles may often be used as brief (though sometimes ambiguous) equivalents of phrases containing Conjunctions and Verbs.
49. Participles, Adjectives, Participial Adjectives, and Nouns may be used as equivalents for phrases containing the Relative.
50. A statement may sometimes be briefly implied instead of being expressed at length.
51. Conjunctions may be omitted. Adverbs, e.g. "very," "so." Exaggerated epithets, e.g. "incalculable," "unprecedented."
51 a. The imperative may be used for "if &c."
52. Apposition may be used, so as to convert two sentences into one.
53. Condensation may be effected by not repeating (1) the common Subject of several Verbs; (2) the common Object of several Verbs or Prepositions.
54. Tautology. Repeating what may be implied.
55. Parenthesis maybe used with advantage to brevity. See 26.
56. Brevity often clashes with clearness. Let clearness be the first consideration.
CLEARNESS AND FORCE
Numbers in brackets refer to the Rules.
WORDS
*1. Use words in their proper sense.*
Write, not "His apparent guilt justified his friends in disowning him," but "his evident guilt." "Conscious" and "aware," "unnatural" and "supernatural," "transpire" and "occur," "circumstance" and "event," "reverse" and "converse," "eliminate" and "elicit," are often confused together.
This rule forbids the use of the same word in different senses. "It is in my power to refuse your request, and since I have power to do this, I may lawfully do it." Here the second "power" is used for "authority."
This rule also forbids the slovenly