The Element Encyclopedia of the Psychic World: The Ultimate A–Z of Spirits, Mysteries and the Paranormal. Theresa Cheung
over the world. It seems that a belief in ghosts and communication with spirits of the dead has also always been with us from our earliest beginnings.
In the ancient Middle East, psychic powers were practised by prophets and are described in the Bible’s Old Testament. The royalty of many ancient cultures used divination to seek guidance in times of war and to predict natural disasters such as drought. The Egyptians believed they could communicate with the dead and forecast future events using palmistry and dream divination. In Africa the ancient peoples used trance states to contact the spirits of their dead ancestors. The Greeks used oracles at sacred locations to give prophecies of the future and the Romans looked to the stars for messages from the invisible realm. Early American psychic practices have also been documented. The Aztecs in Mexico used astrology and oracles and Native Americans relied on advice given to them by shamans who entered deep trance-like states to contact spirits.
Although belief in ghosts was present from the very beginning of human history, the first extant report of a haunted house comes from a letter written by a Roman orator called Pliny the Younger (AD 61-112). He wrote to his patron, Lucias Sura, about a villa in Athens that nobody would rent because of a resident ghost.
The best-known psychic of the Middle Ages was a French physician called Nostradamus (1503-1566). He wrote about a thousand prophetic verses, which are still analysed today by scholars looking for references to the world’s future.
After the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, during the Age of Reason, belief in psychic powers and the paranormal waned, but it was reborn again with the help of the Spiritualist movement. The foundations of spiritualism were laid by Emanuel Swedenborg (1688-1772), who allegedly went into trances and communicated with the dead. However, it was the Fox sisters, Kate (1841-1892) and Margaretta (1838-1893), who really brought psychic phenomena to the forefront. The sisters claimed they were able to manifest spirit communication through the rappings of a peddler who had been murdered and found in the Fox home. The public were fascinated as the sisters gave public demonstrations of this psychic manifestation throughout the United States.
Even though the sisters later confessed to fraud, the Spiritualist movement was by then well underway both in the United States and in Europe. Spirit rapping gave way to séances, table-tilting, trance writing and spirit communication through a medium. Many of these techniques are still practised today by Spiritualist churches.
Perhaps the biggest influence on the advancement of psychic knowledge was that of a man called Edgar Cayce (1877-1945), who is now considered the founder of the so-called New Age movement. Cayce had remarkable psychic powers. Allegedly he could see into the future and give predictions. He could look through objects and inside the human body. He was also able to enter another person’s mind and know what that person was thinking, and sleep on a book and remember its contents.
The phenomena produced by mediums and psychics like Cayce during the height of spiritualism in the latter part of the nineteenth century quickly attracted the attention of eminent scientists and intellectuals, and the scientific investigation of alleged psychic powers, ghosts, apparitions, poltergeists and paranormal phenomena began in earnest. In 1882 the Society for Psychical Research was formed in London, and in 1885 the American Society for Psychical Research was founded in Boston. Clubs, organizations and societies dedicated to the paranormal sprung up all over the world, and as the twentieth century drew to a close the psychic world had successfully filtered into mainstream culture. It looks set to stay there.
Today we have televised séances and ghost investigations, celebrity mediums and psychics and bookshops, websites and university courses devoted to the paranormal. Over the years investigation of the paranormal has become increasingly sophisticated and precise. It isn’t about superstition and eye-witness accounts any more, but about laboratory experiments, data, theories, statistical evaluation and high technology. There are those who are keen to offer theories to prove we live in a psychic world and those who are convinced it doesn’t exist. There is a huge desire to unravel the mystery. The hotly debated question at the beginning of the twenty-first century is, are psychic phenomena real?
Fact or fiction?
Is the psychic world real? I’ll give you the answer straight out: No one knows for certain.
There are, however, many theories to explain the thousands upon thousands of documented experiences that people around the world have had since the beginning of recorded history. Some believe psychic phenomena are real, whether or not science, fraud, misinterpretation, hallucination or natural phenomena can explain them. Others argue that if something is unexplainable by science, it cannot be real. These two sides - believers and sceptics - engage in heated debates over whether reports of paranormal experiences are misinterpretations, coincidences, the product of hallucinations or something more substantial.
Meanwhile, researchers into paranormal phenomena continue to seek explanations. It seems that the three hardest words for human beings to utter are ‘I don’t know’. We demand an accounting for every claim or experience, even if that experience seems unexplainable. Consequently, scientists, parapsychologists and psychologists have come up with a variety of theories for why paranormal phenomena exist, if they exist. For example:
Sceptic: ‘Anecdotal evidence, characteristic of most psychic phenomena, is basically unreliable. Anecdotes may have natural, not mysterious explanations, such as random coincidence, fraud, imagination, or auto-suggestion.’
A believer responds: ‘The hard evidence for psychic phenomena today is founded on repeat-able experiments and not anecdotal evidence. Anecdotal evidence is considered valid in law and many other fields. The validity of anecdotal evidence does not depend upon the opinion of those listening to it.’
Sceptic: ‘If an experiment is not controlled to prevent fraud, then the results may not be trusted. This is especially so given the fact that many people who claimed to possess psychic abilities were later proven to be frauds. Parapsychology experiments are usually poorly designed. They often lack proper controls, allowing paths of intentional or unintentional information leakage through normal means.’
A believer responds: ‘There is no such thing as a completely foolproof experiment in any field of science, and it is unreasonable to hold parapsychology to a higher standard than the other sciences. Fraud and incompetence in parapsychology is addressed in the same way it is addressed in any other field of science: repeating experiments at multiple independent laboratories, and publishing methods and results in order to receive critical feedback and design better protocols, etc’
Sceptic: ‘Parapsychology experiments are rarely replicated with positive results at independent laboratories.’
A believer responds: ‘The existence of certain psychic phenomena has been reasonably well established in recent times through repeatable experiments that have been replicated dozens of times at labs around the world.’
Sceptic: ‘Positive results in psychic experiments are so statistically insignificant as to be negligible, i.e. indistinguishable from chance. For example, parapsychology may have a “file drawer” problem where a large percentage of negative results are never published, making positive results appear more significant than they actually are.’
A believer responds: ‘Experimental protocols have been continually improved over time, sometimes with the direct assistance of noted sceptics. Meta-analyses show that the significance of the positive results has not declined over time, but instead has remained fairly constant. There are certain phenomena that have been replicated with odds against chance far beyond that required for acceptance in any other science.’
Sceptic: ‘Currently unexplainable positive results of apparently sound experiments do not prove the existence of psychic phenomena, i.e. normal explanations may yet be found. In other words, psychic phenomena cannot be accepted as explanation of positive results until there is a widely acceptable theory of how they operate.’
A believer responds: ‘Anomalous phenomena do not disappear for