Essentials of Sociology. George Ritzer
Theory
The term queer was originally used as a negative term for gay men. Contemporary gay men, lesbians, bisexuals, and transgender and intersexed people have reclaimed the label queer, but now with a positive connotation. Queer theory is based on the argument that there are no fixed and stable identities that determine who we are (McCann 2016; Plummer 2019). The theory also unsettles identities that have long been thought to be fixed, stable, or natural. Among others, it unsettles queers as a noun, as well as gender identities in general (Butler 1990). Some queer theorists use the term genderqueer to refer to gender identities that are not exclusively male or female. Others believe that it is possible to be pangender, or identify as all genders. New pronouns such as xe and ze have been created as alternatives to he and she (Scelfo 2015). While queer theory does not focus exclusively on homosexuality, it does examine the dynamics of the relationship between heterosexuals and gay males and lesbians. It is especially concerned with the historic, systematic exercise of power by heterosexuals over gay males and lesbians. For example, gay males and lesbians have often, at least in the past, governed their own behavior in public, such as by foregoing displays of affection, to avoid making heterosexuals uncomfortable.
Critical Theories of Race and Racism
Critical theories of race and racism argue that race continues to matter globally and that racism continues to have adverse effects on people of color (Delgado and Stefancic 2017; Slatton and Feagin 2019).
Critical theorists of race argue that “color-blindness,” or the notion that race no longer matters in determining an individual’s life chances and experiences, ignores the past and present realities facing racial minorities. Some suggest that color blindness is little more than a “new racism,” a smoke screen that allows whites to practice and perpetuate racial discrimination (Bonilla-Silva 2009, 2015). See the differing perceptions about employment opportunities illustrated in Figure 2.2, for example. The vast majority of white Americans believe that there is equal employment opportunity, but only a minority of black Americans subscribe to that view. The white belief in the smoke screen of equal opportunity serves to rationalize continued discrimination against blacks.
Figure 2.2 Perceptions of Black vs. White Opportunities for Jobs, Housing, and Education
Source: Jeffery M. Jones (15 July 2016), “Americans’ Optimism About Blacks’ Opportunities Wanes.” Gallup. Retrieved from https://news.gallup.com/poll/193697/americans-optimism-blacks-opportunities-wanes.aspx.
Of particular importance to recent work in this area is the idea of intersectionality (Collins and Bilge 2016), which points to the fact that people are affected, often adversely, not only by their race but also by their gender, sexual orientation, class, age, and global location. The confluence, or intersection, of these various statuses and the inequality and oppression associated with combinations of them are what matter most. Not only are we unable to deal with race, gender, class, and so on separately; we also cannot gain an understanding of oppression by simply adding them together. For example, a poor black female lesbian faces a complex of problems different from, and perhaps more difficult to deal with, than the problems faced by a poor person or a black person or a woman or a lesbian.
Ask Yourself
Is your life affected by intersectionality? How many different statuses do you hold, and to which social and cultural groups do you belong?
Postmodern Theory
Postmodern theory has many elements that fit well under the heading of critical theory, although there is more to it than critique. The term postmodern is used in various ways in relation to social theory. Postmodernity, for instance, is the state of society beyond the “modern era,” which was the era analyzed by the classical social theorists. Among the characteristics of the modern world is rationality, as discussed in Weber’s work. The postmodern world is less rational, nonrational, or even irrational. For example, while in the modern world groups such as the proletariat can plan in a rational manner to overthrow capitalism, in the postmodern world such changes come about accidentally or are simply fated to occur (Baudrillard [1983] 1990; Kellner 2011). Although modernity is characterized by a highly consistent lifestyle, postmodernity is characterized by eclecticism in what we eat, how we dress, and what sorts of music we listen to (Lyotard [1979] 1984). This eclecticism has been fostered by, among others, the internet, which gives people ready access to many more different things (e.g., news, opinion, fashion, music genres) that were not so easily available in the preinternet age.
Postmodern theory is a theoretical orientation that is a reaction against modern theory. It refers to a world that has moved beyond the modern era. Postmodern theorists are opposed to the broad depictions of history and society offered by modern theorists. An example of such a narrative is Weber’s theory of the increasing rationalization of the world and the rise of an “iron cage” constraining our thoughts and activities. Instead, postmodernists often deconstruct, or take apart, modern grand narratives. Postmodernists are also opposed to the scientific pretensions of much modern social theory. They often look at familiar social phenomena in different ways or adopt very different focuses for their work. For example, in his study of the history of prisons, Michel Foucault ([1975] 1979) was critical of the modernist view that criminal justice had grown progressively liberal. He contended that prisons had, in fact, grown increasingly oppressive through the use of techniques such as constant, enhanced surveillance of prisoners. Similarly, he argued against the traditional view that in the Victorian era people were sexually repressed; he found instead an explosion of sexuality in the Victorian era (Foucault 1978).
Jean Baudrillard described the postmodern world as characterized by hyperconsumption, which involves consuming more than we need, more than we really want, and more than we can afford.
Baudrillard also saw the postmodern world as dominated by simulations—that is, inauthentic or fake versions of ”real” things. For example, when we eat at McDonald’s, we consume Chicken McNuggets, or simulated chicken. It is fake in the sense that it is often not meat from one chicken but bits of meat that come from many different chickens. Simulations characterize Disney World (e.g,. Main Street), Las Vegas (the Venetian hotel-casino), and much else in the contemporary world. The idea that we increasingly consume simulations and live a simulated life is a powerful critique of consumer society and, more generally, of the contemporary world. That is, not only are we consuming more, but also much of what we consume is fake.
Ask Yourself
Does a life devoted to hyperconsumption, especially online, cause you to become disconnected from others? Are new kinds of human connections created by a common investment in a life devoted to excessive consumption?
Inter/Actionist Theories
The slash between inter and action(ist) in the heading to this section is meant to communicate the fact that we will deal with two closely related sets of theories here. The first consists of those theories that deal mainly with the interaction of two or more people (symbolic interactionism, ethnomethodology, and exchange theory). The second comprises those that focus more on the actions of individuals (rational choice theory). A common factor among these theories is that they focus on the micro level of individuals and groups. This is in contrast to the theories discussed previously that focus on the macro structures of society.
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