Dirt. David R. Montgomery
of extensive soil erosion in the past five thousand years. Today, thick red and brown soils are found only in hollows and at the foot of slopes protected from streams. Remnants of hillslope soils and archaeological evidence show that since the Bronze Age there have been centuries-long periods with high settlement density, intensive farming, and accelerated soil erosion separated by millennia-long periods of low population density and soil formation.
Alexander the Great's homeland of Macedonia in eastern Greece underwent similar episodes of soil erosion accompanied by stream filling, and followed by landscape stability. The pace of soil erosion doubled in the late Bronze Age, and then doubled again from the third century BC to the seventh century AD. Another round started after the fifteenth century—defining a cycle with a roughly thousand-year periodicity, just as in other parts of Greece.
Regional climate changes cannot explain the boom-and-bust pattern of human occupation in ancient Greece because the timing of land settlement and soil erosion differed around the region. Instead, modern geoarchaeological surveys show that soil erosion episodically disrupted local cultures, forced settlements to relocate, led to changes in agricultural practices, and caused periodic abandonment of entire areas.
An ancient geopolitical curiosity provides further evidence that people destroyed Greek soils. The northern slopes of Mount Parness define the border between Boeotia and Attica. Oddly, the region belonged to Attica but was accessible only from Boeotia. So the region remained forested because Athenians could not get to it and Boeotians could not use it. While both city-states suffered severe soil erosion in their cultivated heartland, the no-man's-land on the border still retains a thick forest soil.
Extensive Bronze Age soil erosion coincides with changing agricultural practices that allowed a major increase in human population. The transition from highly localized, spring-fed agriculture using digging sticks to rain-fed agriculture based on clearing and plowing whole landscapes fueled an expansion of settlements. Initially, very low hillslope erosion rates increased slowly as agriculture spread until eventually erosion increased tenfold during the Bronze Age. Subsequently, erosion rates dropped back to close to the natural rate before once again increasing tenfold during the classical and Roman eras.
Almost the entire landscape was cultivated by classical times. Massive piles of dirt deposited in valley bottoms document extensive erosion of forest soils from hillsides disturbed by initial agricultural colonization. In places, later episodes of soil erosion were not as severe because continued farming and grazing prevented rebuilding thick soils. Even so, ancient erosion control measures like terraced hillsides and check dams built to slow the growth of gullies provide direct evidence of a fight to save soil.
The variety of crops excavated from Neolithic sites in Greece indicate that pre-Bronze Age agriculture was highly diversified. Sheep, goats, cows, and pigs were kept on small, intensively worked mixed-crop farms. Evidence of plow-based agriculture on estates worked by oxen records a progressive shift from diversified small-scale farms to large plantations. By the late Bronze Age, large areas controlled by palaces specialized in growing cereals. Olives and grapes became increasingly important as small farms spread into progressively more marginal areas prone to soil erosion. This was no coincidence—they grew well in thin, rocky soils.
Hesiod, Homer, and Xenophon all described two-field systems with alternate fallow years. It was normal to plow both fallow and planted fields three times a year, once in the spring, once in summer, and again in the autumn right before sowing. All this plowing gradually pushed soil downhill and left fields bare and vulnerable to erosion. Whereas Hesiod recommended using an experienced plowman who could plow a straight line regardless of the lay of the land, by later classical times terraces were built to try and retain soil and extend the productive life of hillside fields.
Modern examples show just how rapidly Greek soils can erode. On some overgrazed slopes, thickets of fifty-year-old oak standing on one-and-a-half-foot-high soil pedestals testify to modern erosion rates of just over a quarter of an inch per year. Live trees with roots exposed up to two and a half feet above the present ground surface record decades of soil erosion at around half an inch per year. When exposed to the direct effects of rainfall, land can fall apart at a rate apparent to even casual observers.
Little more than six centuries after the first Olympics were held in 776 BC, the Romans captured and destroyed Corinth, assimilating Greece into the Roman Empire in 146 BC. By then, after the second round of widespread soil erosion, Greece was no longer a major power. Some remarkable geologic detective work has shown how, like the ancient Greeks, the Romans also accelerated soil erosion enough to impact their society.
In the mid-1960s Cambridge University graduate student Claudio Vita-Finzi picked Roman potsherds from the banks of a Libyan wadi out of deposits previously thought to date from glacial times. Puzzled by the large amount of sediment so recently deposited by the stream, he poked around ancient dams, cisterns, and ruined cities and found evidence for substantial historical soil erosion and floodplain deposition. Intrigued, he set about trying to determine whether these geologic changes in historical times told of climate change or land abuse.
Traveling from Morocco north to Spain, and then back east across North Africa to Jordan, Vita-Finzi found evidence for two periods of extensive hillslope erosion and valley bottom sedimentation in river valleys around the Mediterranean. Deposits he called the Older Fill recorded erosion during late glacial times. Convinced that what he at first thought to be a Libyan curiosity was instead part of a broader pattern, Vita-Finzi attributed the younger valley fill to lower stream discharge caused by increasing aridity at the beginning of the late Roman era.
As often happens with new theories, people trying to fit additional observations into a simple framework found a more complicated story. The timing of soil erosion and valley filling differed around the region. How could Vita-Finzi's proposed regional drying affect neighboring areas at different times, let alone cause repeated episodes of erosion in some places? Just as in Greece, evidence now shows that people accelerated soil erosion in the Roman heartland as well as Roman provinces in North Africa and the Middle East. Even so, a simple choice of causes between climate and people is misleading. Droughts and intense storms accelerated erosion periodically on land where agricultural practices left soils bare and vulnerable.
As in other Paleolithic hunting cultures in southern Europe, an almost exclusive reliance on hunting large animals in central Italy gave way to more mixed hunting, fishing, and gathering as forests returned after the glaciers retreated. Thousands of years later, sometime between 5000 and 4000 BC, immigrants from the east introduced agriculture to the Italian Peninsula. Sheep, goat, and pig bones found along with wheat, barley seeds, and grinding stones reveal that these first farmers relied on mixed cereal cultivation and animal husbandry. Occupying ridges mantled with easily worked, well-drained soils these farmers relied on an integrated system of cereal cultivation and grazing similar to traditional peasant agriculture described by Roman agronomists thousands of years later. Between 3000 and 1000 BC, agricultural settlements spread across the Italian landscape.
From the early Neolithic to the end of the Bronze Age, Italian agriculture expanded from a core of prime farmlands into progressively more marginal land. The basic system of small-scale farms practicing mixed animal husbandry and growing a diversity of crops remained remarkably stable during this period of agricultural expansion—Bronze Age farmers still followed the practices of their Neolithic ancestors. Between about 4000 and 1000 BC, agriculture spread from the best sites used by the first farmers to steeper slopes and hard-to-work valley bottom clays.
Figure 8. Map of Roman Italy.
Iron came into widespread use about 500 BC. Before then only the wealthy and the military had access to metal tools. More abundant and cheaper than bronze, iron was hard, durable, and readily formed to fit over wood. Farmers began fitting plows and spades with iron blades to carve through topsoil and down into denser subsoil. Most of Italy remained forested around 300 BC, but new metal tools allowed extensive deforestation over the next several centuries.
When Romulus founded Rome in about 750 BC, he divided up the new state into two-acre parcels, a size his followers could cultivate themselves. The soils of central