Ecology of Indonesian Papua Part One. Andrew J. Marshall
70 and 200 species of trees larger than 10 cm diameter breast height (dbh). It is thus difficult to characterize the forest types of Papua taxonomically. Instead, forest types are delineated by elevation, rainfall, and structure. In general, New Guinea’s forests can be termed "tropical humid forests." Tree species of the following families are important components of this tree flora: Podocarpaceae, Fagaceae, Moraceae, Lauraceae, Meliaceae, Myristicaceae, Sapindaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Combretaceae, Sapotaceae, Annonaceae, Clusiaceae, and Rubiaceae, among others (Oatham and Beehler 1997).
In the lowlands, one finds tall alluvial forests in well-drained catchment basins, as well as various types of periodically inundated swamp forests in the more poorly drained areas. The finest alluvial forests are grand, indeed, with emergent species reaching 60 meters (e.g., Octomeles sumatrana), and canopy height topping 45 meters. The canopy of this alluvial lowland forest is often irregular and broken, except where there has been uniform regeneration after some disturbance. Typical canopy tree genera of the wooded swamps include Barringtonia, Terminalia, Alstonia, Diospyros, Carallia, Syzygium, and Campnosperma. Palm swamps, dominated by sago, pandanus, or nipa are commonplace in the vast deltaic areas of the major rivers (e.g., Digul). These grade into herbaceous swamplands where inundation is the prevalent condition. Coastally one finds small strips of mangrove or large and extensive mangroves forests, depending upon conditions. These comprise species of Sonneratia, Xylocarpus, Brugiera, Rhizophora, and Avicennia. Mangrove formations are dominant in the south and southeast, between the southern Vogelkop and Bomberai Peninsula, and along the Waropen coast (northeastern Cenderawasih Bay). In the far southeast one encounters closed monsoon forest that grades southward into Melaleuca woodland and Eucalyptus savanna.
Much of Papua is hilly, and here forests are on well-drained soils and tend to be less grand, with smaller-boled trees of lesser height. In the low hills on the southern side of the Central Cordillera above Timika one finds a very poor "white sand" and heath forest that is both structurally bizarre and taxonomically distinct. Above 1,000 meters one encounters submontane forests that in places have a strong representation of oaks (Castanopsis acuminatissima, Lithocarpus spp.) and several genera of Lauraceae. A cloud line settles on the mountains at varying elevations, depending on local conditions. This produces cloud forest conditions, which are typified by the abundance of moss on tree trunks as well as an effusion of epiphytes. This cloud line most typically can be found between 1,500 and 2,500 meters elevation. Midmontane forests are more species-poor and can be dominated by the Antarctic beech Nothofagus as well as several genera of gymnosperms from the family Podocarpaceae (Podocarpus, Dacrycarpus, Dacrydium, Phyllocladus). Above 3,000 meters, one encounters an elfin woodland that is low in stature (15 m), and small-boled (10–30 cm) and dense, with heavy mossing and with tangled moss-laden root mats on the ground in the place of soil. Climbing higher into the mountains, this leads to areas where patches of dense thicket-like dwarf forest is interdigitated with open boggy grasslands in the more poorly-drained and frost-prone areas. In these areas one can find prominent stands of large Dacrycarpus compactus as well as the more conifer-like Papuacedrus papuanus. On the summit areas above 4,000 meters one encounters a mix of tussock grasslands, rocky areas, low ericaceous thickets, and a variety of tropical alpine herbaceous vegetation.
Botanically, Papua is remarkable, estimated to house more than 15,000 species of vascular plants, notably some 2000 species of orchids, more than 100 rhododendrons, one species of the great and ancient Araucaria conifers—Papua’s tallest tree, as well as the magnificent and valuable kauri pine (Agathis labillardierei). Dipterocarp trees are relatively uncommon, but appear in abundance in certain patches, the result of some natural disturbance regime. Other important timber trees include Intsia bijuga ("merbau"), Pometia pinnata ("matoa"), Pterocarpus indicus ("rosewood"), and Dracontomelon ("black walnut"), among others.
Fauna
VERTEBRATES
Birds dominate the Papuan vertebrate fauna, with more than 600 species recorded. This includes more than 25 species of birds of paradise, three species of cassowaries, and some two dozen each of parrots, pigeons, raptors, and kingfishers. The mammals are less in evidence, mainly because of chronic hunting and their nocturnal habits. Fruit bats, insectivorous bats, tree kangaroos, possums, and rats are the best represented among the 180 or so species. Amphibians include more than 150 species of frogs, many still unknown to science. Reptiles include two crocodiles, 61 snakes, and 141 lizards. The fishes comprise ca 150 freshwater species and more than 2,250 marine taxa (about 1,500 of which inhabit coral reef ecosystems). Of special note are the 36 species of rainbow fish that inhabit Papua. This is an incomplete list, undoubtedly, and new taxa were described as recently as 1998.
TERRESTRIAL INVERTEBRATES
The forest invertebrate fauna is diverse beyond imagination, defying our ability to enumerate it. There are probably in excess of 100,000 species of insects alone, only a fraction of these having been cataloged. Most prominent are the huge and beautiful birdwing butterflies, the giant phasmid stick insects, several lineages of giant beetle (longicorn, dynastine, etc.), and the world’s largest moth. One can also find freshwater crabs, a range of edible freshwater shrimp and crayfish, and an abundance of blood-sucking leeches.
MARINE LIFE AND CORAL REEFS
The marine reef environments found in Cenderawasih Bay and the Raja Ampat Islands are among the very richest on earth in terms of species diversity. One finds extraordinary numbers of hard corals, mollusks, and reef fishes. These environments are also very productive, and form an important sustainable resource for local communities. The region also supports a significant pelagic fishery, with key migratory species (such as various tuna).
Human Cultures
CULTURAL SETTING
Although the island of New Guinea is rather young in geological terms, its peoples are of apparently ancient stocks, and there is evidence that humans has been present on the island at least 40,000 years, perhaps longer. Not surprisingly, the details of the earlier habitation on the island are scanty, and it is possible that humans have occupied New Guinea for as long as 60,000 years. The whole island of New Guinea supports more than 1,200 language groups. No other comparable land mass supports more languages. This could be taken as an indication of the longevity of human occupation of New Guinea. The Papuan half of the island supports about 250 languages (dwarfed by PNG’s 800 languages). We can offer no explanation as to why the west supports so many fewer languages, but physiographic and biogeographic diversity may offer a partial explanation (or it may be nothing more than sampling error—a nonconformity in classification methodology by scientists working in Asia vs. the Pacific).
Many of Papua’s language groups are small and insular, with fewer than 1,000 speakers. A few other languages (e.g., Dani, Asmat) are spoken by many. These dominant languages seem to indicate cultural dominance as well. As with Papua New Guinea, the language diversity parallels diversity in local culture and thus Papua is culturally very diverse and heterogeneous. This is one reason there has been only limited local development in Papua. Small, diverse, egalitarian societies do not have the human capacity and structure needed for complex social and economic structures to develop, as has been explained eloquently by Jared Diamond in his book Guns, Germs, and Steel (1999). The absence of stratified societies and the lack of key domesticated livestock and grain crops has certainly contributed to the generally minor development of local economies in Papua. In one point of contrast, important sweet potato cultures in the fertile valleys of the central highlands have developed since the arrival of the sweet potato on the island—perhaps as little as 500 years ago. The major traditional population centers are found in the interior uplands (Baliem and Ilaga valleys, Paniai Lakes, and Arfak Mountains). Most societies are forest-or coastal-dwelling, with primary dependence upon sweet potatoes and pigs (interior) or fish and yams (coastal). It seems all New Guineans are accomplished gardeners as well as accomplished warriors. In most instances, the warlike traditions have been suppressed over the last century, mainly through the teachings of Christian missionaries.
HISTORY OF WESTERN ENGAGEMENT AND POLITICAL HISTORY
Papua was undoubtedly first contacted by Islamic traders from the west in search of spices and other exotic trade goods. The undocumented first contacts between the traders and the coastal Papuans perhaps first took place more than a thousand years ago. But initial trade was probably