Ecology of Sulawesi. Tony Whitten
THE ECOLOGY OF SULAWESI
THE ECOLOGY OF INDONESIA SERIES
VOLUME IV
THE ECOLOGY OF INDONESIA SERIES
Volume IV: The Ecology of Sulawesi
Other titles in the Series
Volume I: The Ecology of Sumatra
Volume II: The Ecology of Java and Bali
Volume III: The Ecology of Kalimantan
Volume V: The Ecology of Nusa Tenggara and Maluku
Volume VI: The Ecology of Irian Jaya
Volume VII: The Ecology of the Indonesian Seas
Produced by
Environmental Management Development in
Indonesia Project, a cooperative project of the
Indonesian Ministry of the Environment
and
Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia
under the sponsorship of the
Canadian International Development Agency
The Ecology of
Sulawesi
TONY WHITTEN
MUSLIMIN MUSTAFA
GREGORY S. HENDERSON
First Edition © 1987 Gadjah Mada University Press
First Periplus Edition © 2002
All rights reserved
Published by Periplus Editions (HK) Ltd.
ISBN: 978-1-4629-0507-2 (ebook)
Publisher: Eric Oey
Typesetting and graphics: JWD Communications Ltd.
Copyediting: Marylouise Wiack
Distributors:
Indonesia:
PT Java Books Indonesia
J1. Kelapa Gading Kirana
Blok A14 No. 17, Jakarta 14240
Japan
Tuttle Publishing
RK Bldg. 2nd Floor 2-13-10 Shimo-Meguro
Meguro-ku Tokyo 153 0064
Asia Pacific
Berkeley Books Pte Ltd
61 Tai Seng Avenue, #02-12,
Singapore 534167
USA
Tuttle Publishing
Distribution Center, Airport Industrial Park
364 Innovation Drive, North Clarendon, VT 05759-9436
Printed in Singapore
Table of Contents
Foreword ix
Acknowledgements x
Introduction xiv
Chapter 1 Physical, biological and human background 1
Geology 1
Geological history 1
Volcanoes 7
Minerals 11
Soils 14
Climate 16
Palaeoclimate 16
Present climate 20
Vegetation 29
Palaeovegetation 29
Present vegetation 30
Fauna 34
Palaeofauna 34
Present fauna 37
Endangered species 50
Biogeography 54
Background to biogeography 54
Wallace's Line 59
Biogeographical differences within Sulawesi 68
People of Sulawesi 72
Prehistory 72
Impacts of prehistoric man 79
History 82
Present-day people 88
Present state of natural ecosystems 91
Chapter 2 Seashores 105
Introduction 105
Physical conditions 105
Tides 105
Surface currents 108
Salinity 109
Temperature 110
Dissolved oxygen and nutrients 110
Sediment 111
Oxygen within the sediment 112
Bacteria 113
Adaptations of the fauna 113
Mangrove forest vegetation 116
Composition 117
Zonation 124
Biomass and productivity 131
Other coastal vegetation 136
Pes-caprae formation 136
Barringtonia formation 137
Rocky shores 140
Fauna of sediment beaches 140
Open area communities 140
Shorebirds 144
Turtles 151
Maleo birds 155
Seabirds 159
Invertebrates of mangrove forest 162
Terrestrial fauna of mangrove forest 174
Fauna of beach forests, particularly coconut crabs 175
Fauna of rocky shores 181
Introduction 181
Functions and products of mangrove forest 185
Tambak fishponds 187
Mangrove forest