Literature, American Style. Ezra Tawil
who set out to address its endemic inconsistencies in spelling and construction and to cultivate an American orthographic system distinct from it and capable of forming a more perfect standard of its own. We might say by analogy that Johnson’s English thus played “Greek” to Webster’s “Latin.” But the linguistic analogy immediately breaks down. For Roman rhetoricians and poets, the problem of imitatio inherently coincided with the fact of translatio. “What the Greeks call φϱασίς we in Latin call elocutio or style.”75 That is to say, at least there were different words for the same concept; at least the idea of style was voiced by different phonemes, visualized by different graphemes. Even under such linguistic circumstances, it was difficult enough to address the problem of speaking a genuinely Roman Latin; imagine how much more difficult had the problem been that of speaking Greek as a Roman. But that, in effect, was the Anglo-American predicament as I have described it: the cultural-nationalist impulse had to be conducted within the same language as the “foreign” culture whose influence must be managed. This sociolinguistic dilemma, and the cultural problem it signals, was a far more intractable one than Quintilian had faced; nonetheless, his theory of idiomatic style cut a path for American cultural nationalism.
And this explains, finally, why style was destined to become even more crucial in the American case. I would go so far as to say that only the order of style—which is to say, the register, not of the language reservoir itself, but of the choice of words and the manner of their combination—could provide American speakers of English with the grounds for claiming a national-linguistic distinction. “American English,” if the phrase itself was not to be an absurd contradiction in terms, would have to be something capable of boasting (to paraphrase Quintilian) genuinely American origin, rather than merely English presented with U.S. citizenship. But with no “new language” in circulation to distinguish colony from metropole, the only available ground on which to claim linguistic distinctness is a new way of inhabiting the metropolitan language. Again, this rests on a conception of novelty not as ex nihilo invention, but as a distinctive selection and recombination of already existing elements. If Noah Webster performed this operation on American language by proposing a modal revision of British English—what we might call American-style English—the authors of imaginative fiction I consider here did the same for American literature by proposing to rewrite British letters as “literature, American style.” Precisely because it was modal in the same way as Webster’s orthographic solution, literary style was the only conceptual register capable of performing this sublimation of foreign language and letters into an original vernacular tradition.
Vernacular Anxiety Without a Vernacular
Literature, American Style will focus, as its title baldly enough indicates, on the nationally and historically specific ways in which these literary concerns played out in early U.S. literature, and obliges itself to describe this process in thick cultural detail. At the same time, however, it would be a problematic distortion to treat it as a singular phenomenon isolated from the long European literary history that lay behind it. At the very least, any account of the problem of national literary distinctiveness ought to begin by registering a long history of various European literatures confronting similar questions of linguistic and cultural identity, and at times generating strikingly similar discursive strategies for addressing them. That longer literary-historical vista is important, not only for the virtues of what we blandly call “context,” but for a more fundamental argumentative reason. It forces us to confront the central paradox of the U.S. insistence on cultural novelty, namely, that it not only repeats but even self-consciously emulates much earlier European arguments and cultural logics. To leave this gear out of the critical machine—to treat the idea of American originality as a self-originating discourse that could be isolated from prior or similar cultural formations—would only result in a pseudohistory of that phenomenon that in reality did little more than amplify its central assumptions and capitulate in advance to its mystifications. This is a serious danger in any scholarly treatment of the topic—the present work included.
The first fence I shall build against the exceptionalist fallacy is simply to recognize this late eighteenth-century desire for American originality as a late moment in a much longer European genealogy. Of course, early U.S. culture had particular political, demographic, and geographical matters to address; the literary nationalism some of its participants embraced was inflected by historically modern conceptions of the nation-state; and the whole question of literary national character thus took on a particular cast in this historical context. To describe that particularity will be my primary critical responsibility in the chapters that follow. Nonetheless, I must begin by acknowledging the fact that nearly all of the “American” cultural problems and solutions I will identify have specific and concrete cultural and historical precursors, far beyond, and long before, the obvious British-American axis of transatlantic comparison.
To begin with, as I have already suggested, the core tension I am identifying in late eighteenth-century U.S. literature had a counterpart in Latin antiquity. Roman authors had similarly to contend with the prestige of foreign models of thought and writing while simultaneously attempting to forge a sense of a distinct cultural identity.76 “If the Greeks were the first in Europe to create and record culture,” Elaine Fantham writes, “the Romans, paradoxically, scored a different first. They were the first cultural community to inherit literary models—those set up for them by the Greeks—before they began to compose their own literature.”77 We might say, in other words, that this represents the moment “foreign debt” first entered European literature as a problem to be overcome. Obviously, to draw comparisons between “Rome’s groping toward cultural maturity and self-definition”78 and the cultural politics of the post-Revolutionary United States is already to indulge in a certain level of transhistorical abstraction. The utility of the analogy has its limits, but that doesn’t make it any less illuminating. It is not simply that “cultural activity and state interest”79 came to be yoked together in both instances. More suggestive is how the problem played itself out as a dialectic between alternatives similarly held in discursive tension. Would cultural achievement result from the emulation of imported models, or would it issue from the “well-springs of native soil”80—allochthony or autochthony? This question would repeat itself over and over throughout European literary history, but the moment of its first articulation has the advantage of laying the logic bare like almost no later iteration. For, framed in those terms, it was an insoluble dilemma: the problem of foreign cultural influence could not be met simply by either the incorporation or the abjection of Greek models.81 Insofar as the foreign model is practically coterminous with cultural prestige itself, the guardians of the emergent culture can no more “reject” it than they can give up any claim to legitimacy; yet insofar as the prestige culture is irreducibly foreign, it cannot simply be adopted wholesale without abandoning the search for national characteristics.82 What was needed was a third possibility. In the Roman context, as elites and cultural producers “gradually came to terms with a culture … that they affected to scorn but in fact assimilated and absorbed,” they eventually arrived at a complex way of “adapting Greek forms to convey a Roman character within a Hellenistic context.”83 This Roman “manipulation of the Hellenic legacy”84 has much to teach us about the comparable twists and turns of early U.S. cultural nationalism and the British and European cultural legacies it claimed to sublimate. Through a similar dialectic of adoption and adaptation, U.S. literary culture would have to come to terms with a set of models it regarded as indispensable, yet problematically foreign. Eventually, that dialectic, too, claimed somehow to have yielded an authentically national culture as its final term.85
Beginning in the Middle Ages and intensifying during the various European “renaissances,” this same set of linguistic and cultural questions reasserted itself, though now at one remove: here, the Latin auctores became the objects of influence-anxiety, rather than its subjects and sufferers. This is the problem that shadowed the emergence of the vernacular literatures, where, as with the Roman relationship to the Greeks, the continued necessity of emulating a prestigious tradition (in this case, an antique and no longer “living” foreign one) coincided quite pointedly with the self-assertion of the “vulgar tongue.” This logic played itself out within all of the European vernaculars, starting