Understanding Racism. Hephzibah Strmic-Pawl
“Macro-Level Theories,” “From ‘Old Racism’ to ‘New Racism,’” and “More Than Race.” The organizational structure of the book is further discussed in the “Features” section of this preface, but here I address the choice of the scholars used to represent each theory. I chose scholars and bodies of work based on a combination of several interrelated factors: (1) the degree to which a theoretical map and concepts are provided; (2) the scholar’s depth of work with the theory, thereby signifying a committed and sophisticated dedication; and (3) the number of citations and general recognition of the work that would indicate the significance of and importance to know it.
Based on these three factors, the choice of scholar is sometimes clear, as in the cases of Michael Omi and Howard Winant, who developed racial formation, or Lawrence Bobo, James Kluegel, and Ryan Smith, who conceived of laissez-faire racism. In a couple of instances, scholarship was culled from multiple researchers who contributed to the theory’s formation, as in the case of the chapter on White privilege, which relies on work by Robert Amico, Peggy McIntosh, Paula Rothenberg, and Tim Wise, and the chapter on colorism, which synthesizes work by Evelyn Nakano Glenn, Ronald Hall, Margaret Hunter, Kimberly Norwood, and others. In two instances, the prejudice and discrimination chapter and the White supremacy chapter, an “Additional Contributions” section, which briefly summarizes another theorist’s perspective, is included after the primary theorist’s work. This section is incorporated because the “additional contribution” was significant and distinct enough from the primary theorist covered that it needed to be included. Yet in many cases, I certainly recognize that other scholars and/or scholarship could have been chosen to represent a particular theory. For example, the chapter on critical race theory is largely based on Derrick Bell and his book Faces at the Bottom of the Well, but there are, of course, many other critical race theorists and other books and articles. However, I also contend that Bell and this book are a good and valuable representation of this theory. Bell is often recognized as the founder of critical race theory; he has numerous books and articles using this theory; and Faces at the Bottom of the Well, according to Google Scholar, had more than 3,400 citations as of January 2020. Every work and theorist used in this book fit a similar bill. Moreover, the point of this book is not to be exhaustive but to provide brief and accessible summaries that represent the heart of each theory.
Theory Building
It must be said that each of the scholars represented in this book built on prior research and practice of other scholars. For instance, intersectional analysis in this book is based on work by Kimberlé Crenshaw, yet the work of intersectionality, though not always conceptualized in that term, is visible in Sojourner Truth’s (1797–1883) “Ain’t I a Woman,” Ida B. Wells’ (1862–1931) reporting on lynching, and Gloria Anzaldúa’s (1942–2004) work on feminism, queer theory, and cultural theory. White abolitionists such as William Lloyd Garrison (1805–1879) and Sarah Moore Grimke (1792–1873), along with her sister, Angelina Grimke (1805–1879), articulated the dynamics of White privilege long ago. Native American leaders such as Crazy Horse (ca. 1842–1877), Sitting Bull (1831–1890), and Tecumseh (1768–1813) spoke of the horrors of White supremacy. Similarly, W. E. B. Du Bois’ (1868–1963) scholarship provides a foundation for much of our contemporary theory on race and racism, as has been detailed in Du Boisian scholarship such as Aldon Morris’ The Scholar Denied: W. E. B. Du Bois and the Birth of Modern Sociology and Phil Zuckerman’s edited collection of Du Bois’ work in The Social Theory of W. E. B. Du Bois. The chapters in this book do not discuss these contributions or numerous other preceding scholars, but that is not to imply that they are not important. It is just not within the scope of this book to address previous work, though if one chooses to engage further with any of these theories, reading the work that inspired them is recommended.
Features of Understanding Racism
Understanding Racism is divided into five parts that aid in organizing the 13 theories through a shared contribution and/or orientation. Part I is “Foundational Theories,” which consists of prejudice and discrimination, White privilege, and White supremacy. Each of these theories addresses overarching dynamics of racism. They are important theories in and of themselves, while they also provide pivotal concepts that are used in other theories. For example, White privilege is a critical theory that describes how Whites receive the benefits of racism, while the concept of White privilege is also utilized in many other theories of racism. Part II is “Micro-Level Theories,” which covers implicit bias and microaggressions. Both of these theories critically explore how individuals participate in racism, intentionally or not. Part III is “Macro-Level Theories,” which includes racial formation, systemic racism, and critical race theory. These three theories focus on how institutions and the social system created and maintain racism. Part IV, “From ‘Old Racism’ to ‘New Racism,’” consists of laissez-faire racism, structure and culture, and color-blind racism, all of which describe how racism evolved from overt, discriminatory laws and practices to the contemporary era where racism, though still active, can be harder to recognize. Part IV, the last part of the book, is “More Than Race,” where the theories of colorism and intersectionality detail how other factors such as skin tone, class, and gender work with racism in the oppression of people of color. Although this organizational structure of five parts is used, it should be noted that some theories could be organized under more than one of these headings. As previously detailed, each of the theories is represented through work by a key scholar or scholars. Throughout each chapter, a point was made to incorporate multiple quotes and to cite important passages in order to give the reader a sense of the theorist’s voice and language.
Each chapter is organized by the same primary headings: “Why This Theory,” “Description of the Theory,” “How to Challenge Racism,” “By the Numbers,” “Evaluation” (with “Methodological Benefits,” “Methodological Limitations,” “Theoretical Benefits,” and “Theoretical Limitations”), “Conclusion,” “Reflect and Discuss,” “Diagram,” “Key Terms,” “Key People,” and “Works Cited and Further Reading.” “Why This Theory” provides the context for the emergence of the theory and the problem it addresses. “Description of the Theory” details the primary facets and concepts of the theory. “How to Challenge Racism” covers how the theory frames a solution, or at least a challenge, to racism, and this section reflects the goal to connect theory to practice. The “Evaluation” section gives a few key methodological and theoretical benefits and limitations of the theory.
There are six special pedagogical features to help the reader reach a more in-depth understanding of the theory. “By the Numbers” provides contemporary statistics on racial inequality that align with that theory’s perspective. These data help the reader connect theory to observations. “Reflect and Discuss” offers three questions to encourage dialogue and learning retention. For those for whom an illustration assists comprehension, a “Diagram” is included that proposes the basic relationships between the theory’s components. The “Key Terms” section gives the definition of key concepts used in the theory, and, whenever available, the terms are in the form of a quote from the theorist. In many cases, theories share key terms, so it is important to recognize how the definitions of these terms vary across theory. “Key People” is a brief biography of the theorist or theorists and where applicable includes the theorist’s personal website and/or Twitter account. “Works Cited and Further Reading” includes the scholarship cited in the chapter and related sources that can be consulted in further investigation. This systematic organization, which is used in every chapter, will aid the reader in learning how to analyze theory and make it easier to compare and contrast the theories.
A Note on Reflexivity
I write this book as a White woman born and academically trained in the United States. As a White woman, I recognize my privileged status, both in society and specifically in academia. This privilege has helped me secure a position as a tenured professor and teach about the horrors of White supremacy without the degree of pushback that my colleagues of color experience. In addition, not intentional, but apparent, this book reflects my orientation as a researcher in the United States, as most of the theorists used