The Concise Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics. Carol A. Chapelle

The Concise Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics - Carol A. Chapelle


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      JENNIFER M. WEI

      Seeing gender or gendered behaviors and expectations as embedded in contexts, histories, and cultures helps us remain aware of the dynamics and indeterminacy of this topic. The conventional idea of gender as a fixed and dichotomized category prescribed by a set of patriarchal values might still have strong meaning for some people, allowing them to manipulate and advance a political agenda in some contested contexts, but convention has been challenged by scholars in fields of applied linguistics and discourse analysis. These scholars point out that individuals retain agency in enacting and negotiating gendered roles and expectations in mundane interactions with others. Not all interactions have a gendered dimension, of course; nor do actions and intentions necessarily bring individuals the expected results. A society might change its ideals about gendered roles, such as being a good mother and father or a filial son and daughter, as it evolves from a traditional society to a modern one. In fact, in most developed countries, birth rates have decreased as people no longer see traditional familial rituals such as marriage and giving birth as necessary rites of passage. Nor do individuals in these countries necessarily turn to traditional family and family members as their main or only sources of emotional and financial backup and support in times of trouble. With old familial values being replaced by more global and modern ones such as consumerism and individualism, customs associated with gendered expectations are also changing.

      Scholarship on Chinese gender seems to indicate that, before the period of extended contact with the West, (1) gender concepts were anchored in beliefs about family structure and social roles more so than in beliefs about biological sex (and even beliefs that we might call “biological” were based on classical Chinese medicine, not Western science); (2) “men” and “women” were plural categories rather than unified categories opposed to each other; (3) “manhood” and “womanhood” were not directly linked to heterosexuality, and reproducing the lineage was a more important aspect of sexuality than individual pleasure.

      Did contact with the West bring changes? Are any of the gendered traits more susceptible to change while others are more resistant? Did other forces such as modernization or nationalism reinforce or relativize Chinese ways of thinking and enacting gendered relations? Again, the authors conclude that

      Chinese gender maintained its own distinctive character—in particular, sexuality did not occupy the central role that it does in Western gender. Sexuality seems to have regained importance in the 1990s, but concepts of femininity and masculinity still seem to be primarily anchored in the roles of mother/father and wife/husband. The main change since the Qing is that femininity and masculinity are less anchored in the roles of daughter/son. (p. 34)

      A contrasting interaction between gender and sexuality can be found in Cameron and Kulick (2003) postulating why English speakers often use gender where bodily configuration is at issue and sexuality is often understood simply as sexual identity whereas sex still covers the full terrain. They offer the following explanations:

      Partly, this may be because some speakers still cling to traditional beliefs (e.g. that the way women or men behave socially and sexually is a direct expression of innate biological characteristics). But it may also be partly because the phenomena denoted by the three terms—having a certain kind of body (sex), living as a certain kind of social being (gender), and having certain kinds of erotic desires (sexuality)—are not understood or experienced by most people in present‐day social reality as distinct and separate. Rather they are interconnected. (pp. 4–5)


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