Forgotten People, Forgotten Diseases. Peter J. Hotez
for hematuria, female genital schistosomiasis, and squamous cell carcinoma of the bladder. Genital lesions increase the risk of HIV/AIDS transmission.
Intestinal and liver schistosomiasis caused by S. mansoni accounts for approximately one-third of the cases in Africa and 1 million cases of schistosomiasis in Brazil. This form is responsible for bloody diarrhea, abdominal pain, and liver involvement (hepatomegaly and fibrosis).
The major approach to control of schistosomiasis today is mass drug administration of praziquantel. It has led to the near elimination of schistosomiasis in some middle-income countries and to significant morbidity reductions in some sub-Saharan African countries.
Notes
1. The estimate of 400 to 600 million people is based on studies by Charles King and his colleagues at Case Western Reserve University. They determined that earlier estimates do not adequately consider the number of people who go undiagnosed with schistosomiasis because of variabilities in parasite egg excretion or the difficulties in detecting parasite eggs in human feces and urine; see King, 2010. However, not everyone agrees with this assessment. Instead, a previous and more conservative estimate of approximately 200 million people is more commonly cited; see Steinmann et al., 2006.
2. Historical accounts of schistosomiasis are found in Hulse, 1971; Hotez et al., 2006; Cox, 2002; Fenwick et al., 2006; and Grove, 1990.
4. This incident is described in Kernan, 1959. Because the article is not easy to find, readers may also wish to read a summary of this information in Farley, 1991.
5. Information is contained in Lampton, 1974.
6. Information is found in Horn, 1969, p. 94–106; Hotez, 2002; Utzinger et al., 2005; and Farley, 1991, p. 201–215.
7. Wei, 1958, quoted in Farley, 1991, p. 206.
8. The impact of dam construction projects on the emergence of human schistosomiasis is described in Fenwick, 2006; and Hotez et al., 1997.
9. Farley, 1991, p. 45–54, 188–200.
10. Information is contained in Fenwick et al., 2006. Information about schistosomiasis and hepatitis C coinfections in Egypt may be found in Rao et al., 2002; El-Sabah et al., 2011; and Sanghvi et al., 2013.
11. Van der Werf et al., 2003.
12. Information about the link between schistosomiasis and other neglected tropical diseases and slavery from Africa is found in Lammie et al., 2007.
14. The morbid effects of long-standing schistosomiasis are described in King et al., 2005; King and Dangerfield-Cha, 2008; and King, 2010.
15. Information about the relationship between S. haematobium eggs and bladder cancer can be found in Mitreva, 2012; Nair et al., 2011; and Fu et al., 2012.
16. Information about female urogenital schistosomiasis and its links with HIV/AIDS can be found in Kjetland et al., 2012; and Mbabazi et al., 2011.
17. Fenwick and Webster, 2006; Hotez et al., 2010b.
18. Papers on schistosomiasis and hookworm coinfections include Raso et al., 2006; and Fleming et al., 2006.
19. Information about global coverage for schistosomiasis with praziquantel can be found in World Health Organization, 2012.
20. Information about the London Declaration can be found at http://unitingtocombatntds.org/downloads/press/ntd_event_london_declaration_on_ntds.pdf; and in Hotez, 2012.
21. The results obtained by SCI through mass drug administration with praziquantel have been reported extensively in the peer-reviewed literature. Some recent examples include Landouré et al., 2012; Leslie et al., 2011; and Oshish et al., 2011.
22. The concept and possibilities of using praziquantel to interrupt schistosomiasis transmission and the possibility of disease elimination have been put forward in several published papers; see Rollinson et al., 2012; and Hotez, 2011. The World Health Assembly resolution on schistosomiasis elimination can be found at www.who.int/neglected_diseases/Schistosomiasis_wha65/en/.
23. King et al., 2006.
24. Utzinger et al., 2001.
25. Recent papers on the development of a schistosomiasis vaccine include Riveau et al., 2012; Hotez et al., 2010a; and Tendler and Simpson, 2008.
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