Plant Pathology and Plant Pathogens. John A. Lucas
yield,” and so on."/>
Figure 1.8 Relationship between yield levels and crop loss, indicating economic benefits of control.
Source: Zadoks and Schien (1979).
For some crops, especially high‐value fruits, vines, vegetables or ornamental plants, the quality of the product is as important as the yield. Under these circumstances, very little disease is tolerated, as any damage or blemish may have a disproportionate effect on crop value. Not surprisingly, the most intensive disease and pest control regimes available are used for such crops.
The Impact of Disease
The impact of plant disease depends on agricultural, biological, socioeconomic, and historical factors. In developed agricultural systems, impacts are usually measured in terms of reduced crop yield and quality, and overall effects on farm profitability. In less developed systems, the consequences of disease can be much more serious, affecting food security, regional and national economies, and social stability. Invasive pests and pathogens can also destroy native trees and alter natural ecosystems, as well as impacting on biodiversity (Table 1.4).
Some examples of these impacts and the pathogens responsible are given in Table 1.5. Prior to understanding of the germ theory of disease, and discovery of chemicals and other means of controlling epidemics, disease outbreaks could devastate crops and consequently cause famine and social disruption. It is believed that a plant disease, most likely a virus, contributed to the collapse of the ancient Mayan civilization in the ninth century. But the most notorious case is the potato late blight outbreak of 1845–1846, caused by the oomycete pathogen Phytophthora infestans, that spread rapidly across Europe and had particularly disastrous consequences in Ireland, where many communities were dependent on potatoes as their sole source of food. Around 1 million people died of starvation and countless others were displaced, many emigrating to the USA. Fortunately, with diversification of food sources, and improved crop protection, this scenario is now much less likely to be repeated in developed countries, but in subsistence agriculture is still a constant threat.
Table 1.4 Some impacts of plant disease
| Developed agriculture |
| Reduced crop yield |
| Reduced crop quality |
| Compromised product safety, e.g., mycotoxin contamination |
| Reduced profitability |
| Developing agriculture |
| Food security – malnutrition and famine |
| Impact on communities or national economies |
| Social instability |
| The natural environment |
| Loss of key species or natural communities |
| Damage to landscapes and leisure amenities |
Table 1.5 Some examples of the impacts of specific plant diseases
| Type of impact | Disease | Causal agent | Country/region affected |
| Famine | Late blight of potato | Phytophthora infestans | Europe 1845–1846 |
| Brown spot of rice | Helminthosporium oryzae | India 1942–1943 | |
| Failure of maize crop | Maize mosaic virus? | Guatemala, ninth‐century Mayan civilization | |
| Cassava mosaic disease | Cassava mosaic Gemini viruses | East Africa 1980s to present | |
| Economic | Coffee rust | Hemiliea vastatrix | Sri Lanka 1870, now worldwide |
| Cocoa swollen shoot | Cocoa swollen shoot virus | Ghana/Nigeria 1930–present | |
| Citrus canker | Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. citri | Florida 1912, 1986, 1995–present | |
| Agricultural | Southern corn leaf blight | Bipolaris maydis | USA 1970 |
| Asian soybean rust | Phakopsora pachyrhizi | Asia 1900s, Africa 1995, Brazil 2001, USA 2004 | |
| Black stem rust | Puccinia graminis f.sp. tritici | USA 1900s, new race Ug99 in Africa 1999, now Middle East and potentially Asia | |
| Ecological | Dutch elm disease | Ophiostoma novo‐ulmi | Northern hemisphere 1930, 1970–present |
| Jarrah dieback | Phytophthora cinnamomi | Western Australia 1920–present | |
| Sudden oak death | Phytophthora ramorum | California 1995, UK 2002 | |
| Ash dieback | Hymenoscyphus fraxineus | Poland 1990s, western Europe, UK 2012 |
A more recent example is the spread of cassava mosaic disease (CMD) in Africa. A severe outbreak emerged in Uganda in the 1980s, with crop losses as high as 80–90%, and cultivation of this vital food crop was abandoned in some areas. CMD, that is now known to be caused by a complex of related Gemini viruses spread by whitefly vectors, has since invaded other countries in sub‐Saharan Africa where it continues to affect food security. Recently, a different virus, cassava brown streak, has spread to East Africa to pose a further threat to this vital staple crop.
Other diseases have had serious economic impacts, such as coffee rust that devastated the industry in Sri Lanka and has now spread worldwide. More recent examples of global pandemics caused by rust fungi include Asian soybean rust, that has now spread to the major producing areas in Brazil and the USA, and black stem rust of wheat, a new variant of which (Ug99) emerged in Africa and is now spreading east, threatening wheat production areas in Asia. Soybean producers in the Americas now have to factor in the cost of fungicide treatments, while there are concerns that