Police in America. Steven G. Brandl
Deviant Behavior examined the impact of various types of media consumption on views of police. A sample of 245 students from a large midwestern university were surveyed. Students were asked how much time they spend per week: (a) watching local television news; (b) watching national television news; (c) watching television crime shows (such as Criminal Minds); (d) reading a local newspaper; (e) using social networking sites (such as Facebook, Twitter, or Instagram); and (f) reading news online. To measure views of the police (police legitimacy), the students were asked about their level of agreement or disagreement with numerous statements: (a) you should accept police decisions even if you think they are wrong; (b) you should do what the police tell you to do even if you disagree; (c) it would be hard to justify disobeying a police officer; (d) overall, the police are generally honest; (e) people’s basic rights are well protected by the police; (f) most police officers do their job well; (g) the police usually make decisions that are good for everyone; and (h) the police treat everyone equally regardless of their race. To take into account other factors that may influence attitudes toward the police, respondents were also asked their race, age, prior personal and vicarious contacts with the police, perceptions of neighborhood problems, and degree of self-control.
The researchers found that students who spent more time reading news online had more negative views of the police and, surprisingly, students who spent more time using social media had more favorable views toward the police. Most importantly, the researchers also found that media exposure had the strongest effects on attitudes toward the police for individuals without personal experiences with the police.28 The authors argue that people may substitute media representations as a basis for their attitudes when personal experiences are missing. While the study is not without limitations (for example, the researchers only asked about time on social media, not about time spent reading police-related stories on social media), the study shows how media may influence attitudes toward the police.
Ethics and Morals in Policing
Discretionary decisions of police officers on the street are influenced by many factors. Ideally, one of them is ethical standards. Similarly, policy and strategy decisions in law enforcement agencies should be based on ethical principles.29 As a result, ethics are important to consider when studying the police. Issues associated with ethics and morality are discussed in more detail in Chapter 8 and throughout the chapters via the A Question of Ethics features, but the topic is introduced here.
ethics: Rules of behavior that are influenced by a person’s perception of what is morally good or bad.
morality: A person’s internal beliefs about what is right or wrong conduct.
Ethics and morality are closely related and intertwined. Both relate to fundamental questions about what is right and what is wrong or what is good and what is bad. When a distinction is made, usually morality is concerned more with the individual and his or her internal sense of proper conduct. Ethics relate more toward the behavior of a person. A person whose behavior is ethical is also moral. The distinction is a fine one and is debated by philosophers.
For the police, ethical conduct is an especially serious concern because the police have extraordinary power, and “with great power comes great responsibility.”30 This axiom has great relevance for today’s officers. The police have extraordinary power and authority. Nowhere is this clearer than in their ability to use discretion, to make arrests, to conduct searches, and to use force. Officers can deprive citizens of their liberty, their property, and their life. In a fair and just society, the police are obligated to use their power and authority legally, responsibly, and ethically.
Good Policing
Higher Standards and Visibility
What is one of the most important things a police officer needs to know in order to do a good job? It is critically important for officers to realize that 100% of the time, on and even off duty, they are in the spotlight; they are being watched by citizens and are held to a high standard of conduct by both those citizens and by police superiors. Of course, when on duty and in uniform, people can easily recognize police officers. People notice police officers. Police officers must realize that they are always subject to public scrutiny, even when taking a break from their duties. An officer must also be aware that when off duty and not in uniform, some people will still know that he or she is a police officer. Any questionable conduct from an off-duty officer is still subject to concern and criticism, and the officer can be disciplined for it. Officers’ off-duty use of social media is also subject to increased public and police department scrutiny and has been the basis for job sanctions. Bottom line: Police officers are held to a high standard of conduct and need to be aware of this at all times.
Many ethical issues in policing become relevant when considering the means-ends distinction. Ends are the goals to be achieved, such as apprehending criminals. Means are the ways in which those goals can be achieved, how things are done. When it comes to ethical concerns, usually the means are more scrutinized. Means vary from the ethical to the unethical. They are also either legal or illegal. As explained below, even if means are legal, they can still be viewed as unethical. Unethical and/or illegal means have been referred to as dirty means.31
dirty means: Unethical or illegal means used by police officers.
Forms of Unethical Conduct
One form of unethical conduct occurs when the police use illegal means in an attempt to accomplish good ends. For example, in an attempt to detect and prevent crime, an officer may stop and search citizens without the reasonable suspicion that is legally necessary. To solve a crime, an investigator may not inform suspects of their right to remain silent, which is legally required. This conduct is not legal, nor is it ethical. These actions are clearly problematic in a society that expects its police to be fair and just.
good ends: The desired goals of policing.
Sometimes means are legal but perhaps not ethical. An example is when the police use deception to identify and apprehend criminals. In particular, when officers go undercover and buy drugs from an unwitting citizen or lie in the interrogation room to get a suspect to confess, there is usually little debate about the goodness of the goal, but sometimes there is concern about the appropriateness of the way by which the goal was achieved. There may be ethical concerns even when conduct is legal.
Another type of situation that raises ethical concerns is when the law does not explicitly prohibit or allow certain conduct. For example, in one case,32 the police wanted to identify associates and co-conspirators of an offender, arguably a reasonable and worthwhile goal. To do so, they used her personal information to create a fake Facebook page. At the time, these police actions were neither legal nor illegal, but they were potentially unethical nonetheless.
Finally, some ethical concerns regarding police conduct lie outside of the means-ends distinction because the goals being pursued are not appropriate. These situations relate to police corruption. Legitimate goals of policing are not present in most forms of corruption. For example, when officers seek to maximize personal gain through theft or bribery, ethical (and legal) concerns emerge. As noted earlier, one of the difficulties of policing is defining and measuring good policing. At the very least, one dimension of good policing is ethical policing. It is a worthwhile challenge to figure out how policing can be made more ethical.
A Question of Ethics
Are Police Actions That Are Legal Also Ethical?
One of the first steps in understanding and controlling the unethical conduct of police officers is recognizing what it is. Are police actions that are legal also always ethical? Explain why or why not. Besides the examples already provided, identify and discuss two examples of police conduct that would help support your position.
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