Police in America. Steven G. Brandl
be counted on one hand. With funding from the federal government in the early 1970s to provide scholarships to individuals interested in studying police science and criminal justice, such programs began to appear in colleges, universities, and technical schools across the country. Scholars also began to receive federal funding to study police issues. Knowledge of policing has increased dramatically as a result, although gaps in knowledge still remain.
A Research Question
What Is the Current State of Research on Policing?
In spite of the mass of research on policing that has accumulated since the 1970s, fifty years later there is still much that we do not know. And since new issues continuously emerge in policing, the list of issues on which to conduct research is ever-expanding. In 2004, a committee of the National Academy of Sciences examined the current state of research in policing. The group concluded that
There are many important subjects about which there is virtually no scientific research. By any metric—whether lives lost to crime, the costs and benefits of government expenditures on law enforcement, or the moral obligation imbedded in the use of coercive authority—police research deserves more serious attention than it has received.46
Much research has been conducted since the work of this committee. While we know a lot about some police strategies, it is still fair to say that we know too little about many critical police issues.47 As discussed in this book, police practices and policies are too often based on untested assumptions and conventional wisdom. At a minimum, it is important to recognize when police practices are based on research and when they are not.
Exhibit 2.2 Tools of the Police in the 1980s
In the 1980s, police officers had a much more limited repertoire of tools by which to do their job. For instance, revolvers were carried instead of semiautomatic handguns. There were no Tasers or pepper spray, only a firearm, baton, and handcuffs. There were no computers, meaning that all reports were handwritten or typed with a typewriter. Large radios and pagers served as the communication link to dispatch; there were no in-squad computers or cell phones. There was no GPS for assistance in finding addresses. No in-squad computers also meant that all recorded information about calls for service and subjects had to be provided by dispatchers. There was no email; all written department communication was via telephone, letters, or memos.
The Community Problem-Solving Era of Today and Beyond
Although most scholars believe that policing today is still within the community and problem-solving era, much has changed in policing since the 1970s. For instance, many police departments have made strides in the hiring of minority and female officers. In 1970, only approximately 2% of police officers were women; by 2017, that percentage was nearly 13%.48 In 1970, less than 10% of police officers were racial or ethnic minorities; now that percentage is close to 25%. Police departments have also greatly incorporated technology into their daily operations. This includes computers in patrol cars, DNA banks, automated fingerprint identification systems (AFIS), license plate readers (LPRs), gunshot detection systems, weaponry less likely to be lethal (e.g., Tasers), body armor vests, squad car global positioning systems, cameras in squad cars, and body-worn cameras. With regard to technology in general, policing is quite different than it was just a few decades ago (Exhibit 2.2). Some of this technology is intended to better monitor the actions of officers and increase officer accountability, not unlike how call boxes and the two-way radio were used in the past.
Community policing and the community problem-solving era in general may seem like a “kind and gentle” police orientation. However, even in the era of community policing, crime control is still controversial. The police have not shed their primary responsibilities, nor is the use of force any less significant to the role of the police than it used to be. Even with a velvet glove, there is an iron fist.49
Some scholars have suggested the law enforcement changes that occurred and continue to occur as a result of the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, represent the beginning of the end of the community problem-solving era of policing. If this is true, it is possible that the new style of policing will represent a trend already firmly in place before 2001: the increased militarization of the police and the blurring of the lines between the police and the military. Chapter 15 explores this possibility in greater detail. The remainder of this book (Chapter 15 as a noted exception) provides a detailed discussion of the current state of policing.
Main Points
The study of police history is important for several reasons. It can be useful to understand how much or how little things have changed over time and to be aware of what solutions to problems have been tried unsuccessfully in the past. Additionally, knowledge of history can help in predicting the future of policing.
Prior to the development of formal police departments, policing was done by constables, the watch, slave patrols, and sheriffs.
A watch was a group of men who oversaw the security of cities and towns during the night and day and could summon others to assist when there was a disturbance. Slave patrols captured runaway slaves and monitored the conduct of slaves.
The first police departments in America were created around the mid-1800s, at least in part because of the effects of the Industrial Revolution and the creation and rapid rise of cities. This period has been referred to as the political era of policing, as politicians controlled virtually every aspect of the practice.
The first police departments realized the importance of criminal apprehension and used the strategies of the dragnet, the third degree, Bertillonage, and photography.
The police baton was the first tool of the police in the mid-1800s. It was made of wood and frequently used to injure someone or to otherwise induce compliance. Batons are infrequently used today but are still standard-issue equipment. They come in many different styles.
The reform era, which ran from the early 1900s through the 1960s, emphasized police professionalism and capabilities. This way of thinking was spearheaded by progressive police leaders such as O. W. Wilson and August Vollmer. This era began as the result of an increase in high-profile crime and additional demands on the police. These additional demands were primarily due to increased usage of the automobile.
The 1960s represented a crisis for the police and led to a new way of thinking. The community problem-solving era of policing began at the end of this decade, and most scholars agree that it is still the current era of policing. Other scholars suggest that the 2001 terrorist attacks signaled the beginning of a new style of policing.
The community problem-solving era of policing represents the belief that citizens have something to contribute when it comes to crime prevention. Ideally, citizens and police should coproduce crime prevention.
Much research on policing has been conducted during the community problem-solving era, but there is still much to be learned.
Much has changed in policing since the beginning of the community problem-solving era; most notably, the diversity of police officers and the technology used in police departments. The remainder of the book provides a discussion of the current state of policing.
Important Terms
Review key terms with eFlashcards at edge.sagepub.com/brandl2e.
Bertillonage 26
black codes 23
community problem-solving era 31
constable 20
coproduction 31
curbside justice 25
dragnet 27
Industrial Revolution