The Butterfly Book. W. J. Holland
vary in their social habits. Some species are gregarious, and are found in colonies. These frequently build for themselves defenses, weaving webs of silk among the branches, in which they are in part protected from their enemies and also from the inclemencies of the weather. Most caterpillars are, however, solitary, and no community life is maintained by the vast majority of species. Many species have the habit of drawing together the edges of a leaf, in which way they form a covering for themselves. The caterpillars of some butterflies are wood-boring, and construct tunnels in the pith, or in the soft layers of growing plants. In these cases, being protected and concealed from view, the caterpillars are generally white in their coloration, resembling in this respect the larvæ of wood-boring beetles. A most curious phenomenon has within comparatively recent years been discovered in connection with the larval stage of certain small butterflies belonging to the family Lycœnidœ. The caterpillars are carnivorous, or rather aphidivorous; they live upon aphids, or plant-lice, and scale-insects, and cover themselves with the white exudations or mealy secretions of the latter. This trait is characteristic of only one of our North American species, the Harvester (Feniseca tarquinius).
In addition to being protected from enemies by having colors which enable them to elude observation, as has been already stated, some caterpillars are provided with other means of defense. The caterpillars of the swallowtail butterflies are provided with a bifurcate or forked organ, generally yellow in color, which is protruded from an opening in the skin back of the head, and which emits a powerful odor (Fig. 22). This protrusive organ evidently exists only for purposes of defense, and the secretion of the odor is analogous to the secretion of evil odors by some of the vertebrate animals, as the skunk. The majority of caterpillars, when attacked by insect or other enemies, defend themselves by quickly hurling the anterior part of the body from side to side.
Moults.—Caterpillars in the process of growth and development from time to time shed their skins. This process is called moulting. Moulting takes place, as a rule, at regular intervals, though there are exceptions to this rule. The young larva, having emerged from the egg, grows for a number of days, until the epidermis, or true skin, has become too small. It then ceases feeding, attaches itself firmly to some point, and remains quiet for a time. During this period certain changes are taking place, and then the skin splits along the middle line from the head to the extremity of the last segment, and the caterpillar crawls forth from the skin, which is left behind it, attached to the leaf or branch to which it was fastened. The skin of the head sometimes remains attached to the head of the caterpillar for a time after it has moulted, and then falls off to the ground. Ordinarily not more than five, and frequently only four, moults take place between hatching from the egg and the change into the chrysalis. In cases where caterpillars hibernate, or pass the winter in inaction, a long interval necessarily elapses between moults. Some arctic species are known in which the development from the egg to the perfect insect covers a period of two or three years, long periods of hibernation under the arctic snows taking place. The manner in which the caterpillar withdraws itself from its exuviæ, or old skin, is highly interesting. Every little spine or rough prominence is withdrawn from its covering, and the skin is left as a perfect cast of the creature which has emerged from it, even the hairs and spines attached to the skin being left behind and replaced by others.
The Food of the Caterpillar.—The vast majority of the caterpillars of butterflies subsist upon vegetable food, the only exceptions being the singular one already noted in which the larvæ feed upon scale-insects. Some of the Hesperiidæ, a group in which the relationship between butterflies and moths is shown, have larvæ which burrow in the roots and stems of vegetation.
Duration of the Larval State.—The duration of the larval state varies greatly. In temperate climates the majority of species exist in the caterpillar state for from two to three months, and where hibernation takes place, for ten months. Many caterpillars which hibernate do so immediately after emerging from the egg and before having made the first moult. The great majority, however, hibernate after having passed one or more moults. With the approach of spring they renew their feeding upon the first reappearance of the foliage of their proper food-plant, or are transformed into chrysalids and presently emerge as perfect insects. A few species live gregariously during the period of hibernation, constructing for themselves a shelter of leaves woven together with strands of silk.
Transformation.—The larval or caterpillar stage having been completed, and full development having been attained, the caterpillar is transformed into a pupa, or chrysalis. Of this, the third stage in the life of the insect, we now shall speak at length.
THE PUPA, OR CHRYSALIS
The caterpillars of many butterflies attach themselves by a button of silk to the under surface of a branch or stone, or other projecting surface, and are transformed into chrysalids, which are naked, and which hang perpendicularly from the surface to which they are attached. Other caterpillars attach themselves to surfaces by means of a button of silk which holds the anal extremity of the chrysalis, and have, in addition, a girdle of silk which passes around the middle of the chrysalis, holding it in place very much as a papoose is held on the back of an Indian squaw by a strap passed over her shoulders.
The Form of Chrysalids.—The forms assumed by the insect in this stage of its being vary very greatly, though there is a general resemblance among the different families and subfamilies, so that it is easy for one who has studied the matter to tell approximately to what family the form belongs, even when it is not specifically known. Chrysalids are in most cases obscure in coloring, though a few are quite brilliant, and, as in the case of the common milkweed butterfly (Anosia plexippus), ornamented with golden-hued spots. The chrysalids of the Nymphalidæ, one of the largest groups of butterflies, are all suspended. The chrysalids of the Papilionidæ, or swallowtail butterflies, are held in place by girdles, and generally are bifurcate or cleft at the upper end (Fig. 25), and are greenish or wood-brown in color.
A study of the structure of all chrysalids shows that within them there is contained the immature butterfly. The segments of the body are ensheathed in the corresponding segments of the chrysalis, and soldered over these segments are ensheathing plates of chitinous matter under which are the wings of the butterfly, as well as all the other organs necessary to its existence in the airy realm upon which it enters after emergence from the chrysalis. The practised eye of the observer is soon able to distinguish the location of the various parts of the butterfly in the chrysalis, and when the time for escape draws near, it is in many cases possible to discern through the thin,