The SAGE Encyclopedia of Stem Cell Research. Группа авторов
president, chief financial officer, and executive vice president of Corporate Development) who began at ACT in June 2013, and Robert Lanza, MD (chief scientific officer), who began working at ACT in 1999. Lanza is also an adjunct professor at the Wake Forest University School of Medicine in the Institute of Regenerative Medicine. ACT owns or licenses over 150 patents, including a broad patent for producing retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) cells for degenerative retinal disease.
ACT began working in animal cloning in the mid-1990s, but shifted its research focus to human cells in 1998, shortly after the first isolation of human embryonic stem cells (hESC). Michael West became ACT’s chief executive in 1998, and in 1999 bought the company. West recruited Robert Lanza to ACT, and the company focused on therapeutic cloning, a method of developing stem cell lines from a patient’s own cell, thus avoiding the potential for rejection of cells created from unrelated embryos.
In 2001, ACT scientists published a paper in the online journal Biomed describing a method for cloning a human embryo. Thereafter, West appeared on the television program Meet the Press to discuss the paper, bringing publicity to the company. However, according to Corie Lok in a 2012 article in Nature, that announcement may have backfired because the ACT scientists’ accomplishments were not considered significant by the scientific community (in part because the embryo they produced stopped dividing far short of what would be required to derive stem cells), but did trigger a public and political reaction that confused hESC research and cloning.
In order to raise funds, ACT merged in 2005 with the Utah-based company Two Moons Kachina and became a publicly traded firm. The company expanded and, in August 2006, Lanza and colleagues announced in Nature that they had developed a method to derive stem cells from a single cell removed from an embryo. This method could potentially allow stem cells to be produced without harming the embryo, but the embryos used in the reported study were destroyed in the process. According to Lok, this distinction was not made clear in the study or in press releases regarding the study and many news outlets reported that the company had developed a method to derive stem cells without destroying an embryo. If this claim had been true, ACT’s process would avoid some of the ethical concerns surrounding stem cell research. When it became clear that ACT did not have a method for deriving stem cells without destroying the embryo, it hurt the company’s reputation and made it difficult to attract investors.
ACT’s current research and development process has four main focuses, two of which are based on hESC. The first hESC-based therapy, RPE therapy, is intended to treat degenerative retinal disease. RPE therapy is currently undergoing Phase I/II clinical trials for adults (over 18 years) in the United States and the European Union as a treatment for Stargardt’s Macular Dystrophy and atrophic (dry) AMD (age-related macular degeneration). This phase of testing is primarily to determine the safety and toleration of the treatment, which involves the transplantation of hESC-derived RPE cells. The second hESC-based therapy in development is the hemangioblast platform for treatment of diseases and disorders of the circulatory and vascular system; this therapy, which is currently in the preclinical phase, is being developed by ACT in partnership with the Korean company CHA Biotech.
A third ACT project currently in the preclinical phase is a method of manufacturing mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) from renewable sources of pluripotent stem cells, which may be useful to repair damaged tissue. A fourth project in the preclinical phase is an effort to develop methods to treat corneal blindness and glaucoma using corneal endothelial cells. Other research focuses of the company include those related to immune rejection and graft-versus-host disease.
In March 2014, ACT announced a breakthrough in its MSC project, by reporting a new technique to regenerate a replenishable population of MSCs from pluripotent stem cells. In a paper in Stem Cells and Development, Kimbrel and colleagues report that the new method can produce far more MSCs than methods based on deriving MSCs from bone marrow, lowering the need to constantly replenish the supply by finding more donors. MSCs, which are currently being evaluated to treat human disease in over 300 clinical trials, have the advantage of evading detection by the recipient’s immune system, and hence do not require the use of immunosuppressive drugs.
As reported by Heidi Ledford in Nature in January 2014, ACT was experiencing financial difficulties and was seeking financing to continue its clinical trials. One source of the difficulties was the payment of $4 million to settle charges by the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission that ACT had illegally sold billions of shares of stock. In January 2014, ACT was also sued by the Wisconsin Alumni Research Foundation, a company with which ACT has a licensing arrangement, for breach of contract.
Sarah E. Boslaugh
Kennesaw State University
See Also: Clinical Trials, U.S.: Eye Conditions; Embryonic Stem Cells, Methods to Produce; Heart Disease; Mesenchymal Stem Cells; Moral Status of Embryos; Retinal Stem Cells.
Further Readings
Advanced Cell Technology: Company Overview [web page]. http://www.advancedcell.com/company/ (Accessed April 14, 2014).
Kimbrel, Erin A., Nicholas A. Kouris, Gregory Yavanian, et al. “Mesenchymal Stem Cell Population Derived From Human Pluripotent Cells Displays Potent Immunomodulatory and Therapeutic Properties.” Stem Cells and Development. Advanced publication ahead of print (March 20, 2014). http://online.liebertpub.com/doi/abs/10.1089/scd.2013.0554 (Accessed April 14, 2014).
Klimanskaya, Irina, Young Chung, Sandy Becker, et al. “Human Embryonic Stem Cell Lines Derived From Single Blastomeres.” Nature, v.444 (November 23, 2006).
Ledford, Heidi. “Stem-Cell Company in Crisis: Financial Woes Threaten Advanced Cell Technology.” Nature.com: News (January 25, 2014). http://www.nature.com/news/stem-cell-company-in-crisis-1.14591 (Accessed April 14, 2014).
Lock, Corie. “Stem-Cell Research: Never Say Die.” Nature.com: News Feature (January 11, 2012). http://www.nature.com/news/stem-cell-research-never-say-die-1.9759 (Accessed April 14, 2014).
Rockoff, Jonathan D. “Stem-Cell Trial Without Embryo Destruction.” The Wall Street Journal (December 13, 2012).
Advocacy
Advocacy
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Advocacy
Advocacy is a term that refers to the action of speaking out for or defending a position or viewpoint, a right or series of rights, or a need for resolution. Advocacy is not only about having a voice or opinion heard; it also hopes to influence an event or resolution on the side for which it is advocating. The advocate may work on behalf of an individual, a group of people, or a community. Advocacy is considered today one of the key actions in the practice of conflict resolution. There are many ways in which conflict between two or several parties can be resolved, depending upon whether the action engaged falls within the model for advocacy, mediation, conciliation, or conflict negotiation. As such, advocacy has been largely used in the fields of social justice, policy decision making, and community empowerment.
As long as there have been disempowered or vulnerable people in need of help and people willing to speak out on their behalf—be it as good Samaritans, religious representatives, intellectuals, or just concerned neighbors and citizens—the practice of advocacy has always existed. The concept of advocacy as a formal process with methods and systems, a series of established approaches, and even professional representation is relatively new. It started to develop in the late 19th century when ideas of people’s rights began to change, along with notions of community care and social justice. The history of advocacy has developed differently in diverse cultural