A Civic Biology, Presented in Problems. George W. Hunter
A series of early stages in the germination of the kidney bean.
Germination of the Bean.—If dry seeds are planted in sawdust or earth, they will not grow. A moderate supply of water must be given to them. If seeds were to be kept in a freezing temperature or at a very high temperature, no growth would take place. A moderate temperature and a moderate water supply are most favorable for their development.
Bean seedlings. The older seedlings at the left have used up all of the food supply in the cotyledons.
If some beans were planted so that we might make a record of their growth, we would find the first signs of germination to be the breaking of the testa and the pushing outward of the hypocotyl to form the first root. A little later the hypocotyl begins to curve downward. A later stage shows the hypocotyl lifting the cotyledon upward. In consequence the hypocotyl forms an arch, dragging after it the bulky cotyledons. The stem, as soon as it is released from the ground, straightens out. From between the cotyledons the budlike plumule or epicotyl grows upward, forming the first true leaves and all of the stem above the cotyledons. As growth continues, we notice that the cotyledons become smaller and smaller, until their food contents are completely absorbed into the young plant. The young plant is now able to care for itself and may be said to have passed through the stages of germination.
What makes an Engine Go.—If we examine the sawdust or soil in which the seeds are growing, we find it forced up by the growing seed. Evidently work was done; in other words, energy was released by the seeds. A familiar example of release of energy is seen in an engine. Coal is placed in the firebox and lighted, the lower door of the furnace is then opened so as to make a draft of air which will reach the coal. You know the result. The coal burns, heat is given off, causing the water in the boiler to make steam, the engine wheels to turn, and work to be done. Let us see what happens from the chemical standpoint.
The limewater test. The tube at the right shows the effect of the carbon dioxide.
Coal, Organic Matter.—Coal is made largely from dead plants, long since pressed into its present hard form. It contains a large amount of a chemical element called carbon, the presence of which is characteristic of all organic material.
Oxidation, its Results.—When things containing carbon are lighted, they burn. If we place a lighted candle which contains carbon in a closed glass jar, the candle soon goes out. If we then carefully test the air in the jar with a substance known as limewater,[5] the latter, when shaken up with the air in the jar, turns milky. This test proves the presence in the jar of a gas, known as carbon dioxide. This gas is formed by the carbon of the candle uniting with the oxygen in the air. When the oxygen of the air in the jar was used up, the flame went out, showing that oxygen is necessary to make a thing burn. This uniting of oxygen with some other substance is called oxidation.
Diagram to show that when a piece of wood is burned it forms water and carbon dioxide.
Oxidation possible without a Flame.—But a flame is not necessary for oxidation. Iron, if left in a damp place, becomes rusty. A union between the oxygen in the water or air and the iron makes what is known as iron oxide or rust. This is an example of slow oxidation.
Oxidation in our Bodies.—If we expel the air from our lungs through a tube into a bottle of limewater, we notice the limewater becomes milky. Evidently carbon dioxide is formed in our own bodies and oxidation takes place there. Is it fair to believe that the heat of our body (for example, 98.6° Fahrenheit under the tongue) is due to oxidation within the body, and that the work we do results from this chemical process. If so, what is oxidized?
Energy comes from Foods.—From the foregoing experiment it is evident that food is oxidized within the human body to release energy for our daily work. Is it not logical to suppose that all living things, both plant and animal, release energy as the result of oxidation of foods within their cells? Let us see if this is true in the case of the pea.
Food oxidized in Germinating Seeds.—If we take equal numbers of soaked peas, placed in two bottles, one tightly stoppered, the other having no stopper, both bottles being exposed to identical conditions of light, temperature, and moisture, we find that the seeds in both bottles start to germinate, but that those in the closed bottle soon stop, while those in the open jar continue to grow almost as well as similar seeds placed in an open dish would.
Experiment that shows the necessity for air in germination.
Why did not the seeds in the covered jar germinate? To answer this question, let us carefully remove the stopper from the stoppered jar and insert a lighted candle. The candle goes out at once. The surer test of limewater shows the presence of carbon dioxide in the jar. The carbon of the foodstuffs of the pea united with the oxygen of the air, forming carbon dioxide. Growth stopped as soon as the oxygen was exhausted. The presence of carbon dioxide in the jar is an indication that a very important process which we associate with animals rather than plants, that of respiration, is taking place. The seed, in order to release the energy locked up in its food supply, must have oxygen, so that the oxidation of the food may take place. Hence a constant supply of fresh air is an important factor in germination. It is important that air should penetrate between the grains of soil around a seed. The frequent stirring of the soil enables the air to reach the seed. Air also acts upon some materials in the soil and puts them in a form that the germinating seed can use. This necessity for oxygen shows us at least one reason why the farmer plows and harrows a field and one important use of the earthworm. Explain.
A grain of corn cut lengthwise. C, cotyledon; E, endosperm; H, hypocotyl; P, plumule.
Structure of a Grain of Corn.—Examination of a well-soaked grain of corn discloses a difference in the two flat sides of the grain. A light-colored area found on one surface marks the position of the embryo; the rest of the grain contains the food supply. The interesting thing