Theory and Practice of Piano Construction. William Braid White
for shrinkage that are rendered necessary by the vagaries of cast iron, such as is used in the manufacture of metal frames, and to the details of hammer-stroke points and string dimensions, the principles of which have been explained in their proper places within the body of the work.
CHAPTER II.
THE EVOLUTION OF THE PIANOFORTE.
While the present work is by no means intended to serve as an elaborate analysis of pianoforte development, it seems that a proper comprehension of the various principles that are laid down in the course of our argument will be facilitated by a short survey of the evolution of the instrument, undertaken from an historical viewpoint. As we recognize in the pianoforte of to-day the culmination of the musical-mechanical effort of ages, and as a complete study of the results that have been achieved can best be introduced by a preliminary knowledge of the manner in which the various steps towards latter-day excellence have been attained, it seems that we cannot do better than make an attempt to survey the field of pianoforte evolution in a manner broad and general, though necessarily brief.
As was incidentally remarked in the last chapter, we may properly consider the modern pianoforte as essentially the product of all the ages. The origin of stringed instruments is lost in the mists of antiquity, but Greek mythology has supplied us with a most pleasing legend to account for the invention of that pioneer of all stretched-string instruments, the classic lyre. We are told that Hermes, walking one day along the shore, found lying at his feet the shell of a dead tortoise. The intestines of the animal had been dried in the sun and were stretched along the rim of the shell so that when Hermes’ foot struck against one of them, a musical sound was given forth and Lo! the lyre was born. Earlier still are the accounts, in the shape of cuneiform or other inscriptions, that show a form of lyre to have been in use among the Assyrians. The biblical descriptions of various stringed instruments, such as the psaltery, or the harp of David, are generally familiar.
While doubtless we need not consider it illogical to trace the beginning of modern stringed instruments, whether they be of the key-board variety or otherwise, to such misty and vague traditions, we must look to more modern times for a true understanding of the causes that operated to produce the key-board. This, the distinguishing feature of the pianoforte family, first arose through the need for a facile means of accompanying the voice in the then newly beginning art of music which required the simultaneous sounding of different tones. Instruments of the organ type were earlier in the field, for we have accounts of the water-organ in the writings of the historians of the later Roman Empire. The earliest form of key-board seems to have been introduced in Europe in the latter part of the eleventh century AD At about the same period we hear of a stringed instrument called the organistrum, having three strings, one of which was in connection with a number of tangents which were adapted to be pushed in upon it so as to sound different segments and produce different notes. Later we find that the ecclesiastical musicians were in the habit of using more or less complicated monochords for the purpose of training their pupils in the plain-chants of the church. These monochords gradually became more complex and finally were mounted on a kind of sound board in groups and thus became no longer monochords but trichords, tetrachords, or polychords. The next step was obviously to furnish the instrument with a set of balanced key-levers borrowed from the organ and with tangents to connect the keys with the strings, these latter coming from the organistrum. Thus we have at once the famous clavichord.
But this was not the only form of keyed instrument that was thus early devised. We learn that the psaltery had contemporaneously been fitted with keys. There were two forms of this famous instrument, one trapezoid and one triangular. When both of these had been fitted with keys there were two more distinct forms of keyed instruments; differences which had a large influence upon the later development of the type.
These three instruments were thus developed into the accepted forms that were in general use during the seventeenth century and later; becoming respectively the clavichord, harpsichord and spinet. It is from these that the pianoforte is directly sprung. The harpsichord, as its name implies, resembled a harp laid on its back and enclosed in a case, while the strings were plucked, by quills set on jacks, mounted on the keys. The natural shape of the harpsichord, therefore, was similar to that of the modern grand pianoforte and it derived this form from its direct relationship to the early keyed forms of the triangular psaltery. The harpsichord had been a favorite for a long time when Bartolomeo Cristofori, a maker of Florence, completed in 1709 the invention of a hammer action to replace the quilled jack at the end of the harpsichord key. Thus was made possible the production of dynamic effects, of which the harpsichord action had never been capable except through the employment of various mechanical devices, such as swells and double or triple banks of keys with jacks and quills to match. The hammer-action of Cristofori as completed by him in 1726 shows a remarkable similarity to the mechanisms that are still to be found in certain forms of square pianofortes. He succeeded in producing an acceptable form of escapement and a damping device as well, although as the date shows, not until after several years of experimenting and improving upon the original design. Examination shows that Cristofori’s action differs in no essential respect from the square pianoforte actions that we have mentioned. There is the upper and under hammer, the jack working on a groove in the key, the escapement device to determine the travel of the jack, the back-check, and the damper. Every feature that is essential to provide escapement, repetition and damping is found here. Cristofori was, however, obliged to make many changes in the construction of his “gravicembalo col piano e forte” to provide the increased stiffness necessitated by the different manner of exciting the strings. His work, curiously enough, was not taken up after his death by any other Italian harpsichord maker, and it remained for a German to continue his experiments and bring them to a practical and commercial success. Only two pianofortes by Cristofori are known to exist, and one of these is in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.
Gottfried Silbermann, who took up the work of Cristofori, built several grand pianofortes towards the end of the first half of the eighteenth century, and there still exist at Potsdam some of these that were sold by him to Frederick the Great. These instruments appear to be essentially founded upon the work of Cristofori, and the superior workmanship and better adjustment of them do not serve to disguise the evident fact that Silbermann, while improving in details, did not discover any new principles either in action or otherwise.
Somewhat later we hear of Zumpe, who was apparently struck with the idea of adapting the pianoforte hammer to the square-shaped clavichord, which was not deep enough to take the Silbermann action, thus producing a veritable square pianoforte. Zumpe’s device contained no provision for escapement, which fault was afterwards corrected by the celebrated inventor Stein. Mozart speaks of the merits of Stein and joyfully describes how his mechanism prevented the blocking of the hammers. Mozart used one of Stein’s pianofortes during the rest of his life.
The name of Stein is justly famous among the early pianoforte makers. He was responsible, with the able assistance of his daughter Nanette, for the Viennese type of pianoforte, which was for long such a favorite over the heavier and more solid English style on account of its surprising delicacy and lightness of touch. After her marriage, Nanette Stein, in partnership with her husband Streicher, made many other improvements, and her pianofortes were used by Beethoven and others. The firm of Streicher still existed in Vienna a few years ago.
At this point, namely at the beginning of the nineteenth century, we begin to hear of three revolutionary figures; a Frenchman, an Englishman and an American. These are Erard, Broadwood and Hawkins.
Pierre Sebastian Erard settled in Paris during the latter part of the eighteenth century as a maker of harps and harpsichords. Shortly before the breaking out of the French revolution, Erard came to London and began to make harps and pianofortes. In the meantime he was continually working to improve his instruments and was responsible for many useful inventions, such as the up-bearing to the strings by means of the “agraffe.” His chief claim to the consideration of pianoforte makers is due, however, to his invention of the “double repetition” action which was perfected by him in 1821, after many years of unsuccessful experiment. This action, with slight modification,