Cross-Linguistic Transfer of Writing Strategies. Karen Forbes
a review of the literature relating to strategy research in both FL and L1 contexts (i.e. within the fields of L2 acquisition and composition research, respectively); even though these two streams of research have undoubtedly influenced one another over the years, to date they have largely remained separate. The chapter begins by considering ongoing debates surrounding the definition of the term ‘strategy’ and then traces the evolution of research into language learning strategies from its origins in the 1970s to the present day. Key theoretical perspectives are identified which have influenced research in both L1 and L2/FL writing strategies. The focus then shifts to exploring the extent to which these strategies can be taught and learned in a classroom context. To this end, a series of empirical studies are reviewed and evaluated which consider the effect of an intervention of LLSI on performance in writing in L1 and FL contexts, respectively.
Chapter 4 explores issues related to the complex task of researching strategy use. The key aims are, on the one hand, to fully describe the research design of the X-LiST study and, on the other hand, to more broadly reflect on some of the key methodological issues inherent in strategy research. These include, for example, considerations of research design and reflections on the affordances and limitations of a range of methods that aim to capture data about learners’ strategy use. Consideration is also given to the practicalities and ethics of designing and researching LLSI interventions in schools, in order to provide food for thought for other researchers in the field.
Chapter 5 focuses on the role of L1 and FL teachers in facilitating strategy development and transfer within and between different language contexts. While most existing studies on LLSI focus predominantly on the outcomes of such interventions, the aim here is to consider the process of developing the cross-linguistic, pedagogical intervention at the heart of the X-LiST study. While Phase A of the study involved strategy instruction in the German FL classroom only, Phase B involved parallel instruction in both German FL and English L1 lessons in order to encourage students to reflect on, develop and transfer their language learning strategies across contexts. The chapter begins by acknowledging some of the challenges inherent in setting up such collaborations and then explores how these challenges might be overcome. The key considerations and steps in the design and implementation of a cross-linguistic programme of LLSI are described and exemplified with reference to activities developed as part of the X-LiST study. The chapter ultimately calls for a more collaborative and multilingual approach to writing pedagogy where FL and L1 teachers are both recognised as teachers of language and, as such, work together to encourage and facilitate connection making.
Chapter 6 begins by presenting performance data from the X-LiST study which suggests the potential positive effects of LLSI on both L1 and FL writing. The focus then shifts to looking behind this performance data to provide an in-depth exploration of the patterns of strategy development in FL and L1 writing which emerged in the X-LiST study. Whole-class trends are explored over time to determine if and how the strategic writing approaches of students in the intervention group changed in German, French and English from Point 1 (before any intervention took place), to Point 2 (following a period of explicit LLSI in the German classroom only), to Point 3 (after parallel programmes of LLSI were implemented and mutually reinforced in both German and English). Strategy development is considered here largely in terms of planning strategies used before writing, problem-solving strategies used while writing and evaluation strategies employed after writing. As a more objective measure of the effectiveness of strategy use, instances of errors and error correction are also examined. The data presented in this chapter not only illustrate the strategic approaches used by students in both L1 and FL writing, but also provide an insight into the ways in which LLSI shapes their strategy development across different languages.
Chapter 7 aims to shed light on our understanding of the nature of bi-directional transfer between a learners’ L1 and FL strategy use. The chapter first examines key literature related to the phenomenon of transfer. This begins with an overview of early conceptualisations of language transfer from the L1 to the FL, and then discusses more recent developments relating to multicompetence which have led to an increasing interest in reverse transfer from the FL to the L1. Multiple directionalities of transfer in relation to students’ strategy development and use are then explored in more depth, drawing on data from the X-LiST study. At the beginning, students took different approaches to writing in English and the FLs and, as such, there was limited evidence of transfer of pre-existing strategies from the L1 to the FL. What did emerge throughout, however, were similar patterns of strategy development for both German and French, suggesting a high level of transfer between the two FLs. There were also instances of reverse transfer from the FL to the L1 which suggests that even beginner or low-proficiency FL learners can develop effective strategies in the FL classroom that can transfer to their L1 writing.
Chapters 8 and 9 shift the focus from more general trends in terms of performance and strategy development to the individual. The aim here is to identify and reflect on some of the complex and dynamic factors that influence the way in which individual learners develop and transfer writing strategies. To this end, Chapter 8 draws on qualitative data from the X-LiST study to provide an in-depth exploration of the way in which four students negotiated their way through the intervention of LLSI and the extent to which they developed and transferred strategies between their FLs and L1. The four students were selected to represent a range of distinct writer ‘profiles’ that emerged from the data; these are referred to as ‘the strategic writer’, ‘the experimenter’, ‘the struggling writer’ and ‘the multilingual writer’. Drawing on these case studies, Chapter 9 then explores the key factors related to individual differences that emerged, namely, students’ level of proficiency in both the L1 and FLs, their metacognitive engagement with the task, their attitude towards writing and their strategic use of other languages.
Finally, Chapter 10 concludes the book by revisiting and reflecting on the key questions presented above in light of the data generated from the X-LiST study. Limitations of the study are considered and a range of implications relating to theory, methodology and pedagogy are suggested.
This chapter began with reference to the ubiquitous quote from Goethe that ‘those who know nothing of foreign languages, know nothing of their own’. Even though this claim dates back to the early 19th century, the underlying sentiment continues to appeal to language learners, teachers and researchers alike. Nonetheless, there are still questions that remain unanswered about precisely how FL learning can influence the L1 at the level of strategy use. This is precisely what this book seeks to address. There is a growing need for such evidence not only to support the position of FL learning in the curriculum, but also to highlight the potential for cross-curricular collaboration between L1 and FL teachers.
2The Position of First Language and Foreign Language Learning in Schools
As stated in Chapter 1, one of the key aims of this book is to provide insights into the phenomenon of cross-linguistic transfer of strategies and, in particular, to encourage more joined-up, cross-curricular thinking in schools by highlighting the potential contribution of FL teaching to the development of writing skills more generally. As such, it is important to begin by considering the ways in which L1 and FL learning are positioned in schools. As noted by Leonet et al. (2020: 42), ‘it is common to find school policies that follow a strict separation of languages’ at both the curricular and organisational levels. Such policies may, in turn, influence not only the potential for collaboration among language teachers, but also the extent to which students are able to make connections and transfer strategies between languages.