Weapons Of The Rich. Strategic Action Of Private Entrepreneurs In Contemporary China. Thomas Heberer
(2018). China calls for more small-business loans. Japan News, 18 October.
Yu, Shaowen. (1997). Qiyejia yu quanli zhihuihua (Entrepreneurs and the wisdom of power). Zhongguo Gongshang Bao, 6 November.
Yu, Zhengsheng. (2016). Fahui shehui ge jieceng ge qunti youshi he zuoyong wei quanmian jiancheng xiaokang shehui ningju qiangda liliang (Developing the advantages and functions of all social classes and groups in order to build a comprehensive society with a modest living standard and bringing them together to build a great force). Renmin Ribao, 7 September. http://cpc.people.com.cn/n1/2016/0907/c64094-28696233.html (accessed 9 August 2018).
Yuan, Baohua. (1997). Yingzao shehuizhuyi qiyejia chengzhang de lianghao huanjing (Create favorable conditions for the rising socialist entrepreneurs). Qiye Guanli (Enterprise Management) 192, 5–8.
Zenglein, Max J. and Holzmann, Anna. (2019). Evolving made in China 2025. China’s industrial policy in the quest for global tech leadership. Merics Papers on China, No. 8, July. Berlin: Mercator Institute for China Studies.
Zhang, Changdong. (2017). A fiscal sociological theory of authoritarian resilience: Developing theory through China case studies. Sociological Theory, 35(1), 39–63.
Zhang, Honglin and Liu, Xinhua (Eds.). (1996). Zenyang dang ge qiyejia (How to become an entrepreneur), Beijing: Qiye guanli chubanshe.
Zhang, Linjiang. (2018). Xinde shehui jieceng xingqi jiqi dui dangdai Zhongguo de yingxiang (The emerging of new social classes and their impact on contemporary China). Zhongguo Shehuizhuyi Xueyuan (China’s College for Socialism), 29 May. http://www.zysy.org.cn/a1/a-XCXP4I283FD1C41B57E518 (accessed 8 January 2019).
Zhang, Wanding and Li, Dan. (1998). Qiyejia zhineng, juese yu tiaojian de tantao (Discussion of the function, role and conditions of private entrepreneurs). Jingji Yanjiu (Economic Studies) 8, 29–33.
Zhao, Pozhang. (1998). Zhongguo xuyao shijieji qiyejia (China needs world standard entrepreneurs). In: Zhongguo qiyejia diaocha xitong (Research Net of Chinese Entrepreneurs) (Ed.), Zhongguo qiyejia duiwu chengzhang yu fazhan baogao (Report on growth and development of China’s entrepreneurial contingent). Beijing: Jingji kexue chubanshe, 524–536.
Zheng, Hongliang and Yang, Yang. (2011). Development of the Chinese private sector over the past 30 years. In: Shujie Yao, Bin Wu, Stephen L. Morgan and Dylan Sutherland (Eds.), Sustainable Reform and Development in Post-Olympic China (pp. 1–12). London and New York: Routledge.
Zhi quan shi minying qiyejia de yifeng xin (A letter to all the city’s private entrepreneurs). (2018). Shenyang Ribao (Shenyang Daily), 13 December. http://epaper.syd.com.cn/syrb/html/2018-12/13/content_210456.htm?div=-1 (accessed 27 December 2018).
Zhongguo qiyejia diaocha xitong (Research Net of Chinese Entrepreneurs) (Ed.). (1998). Zhongguo qiyejia duiwu chengzhang yu fazhan baogao (Report on growth and development of China’s entrepreneurial contingent). Beijing: Jingji kexue chubanshe.
Zhonggong Zhongyang Guowuyuan (2017). Yingzao qiyejia jiankang chengzhang huanjing, hongyang youxiu qiyejia jingshen geng hao fahui qiyejia zuoyong de yijian (Central Committee of the CCP and State Council on creating an environment for the healthy growth of entrepreneurs, promoting a spirit of outstanding entrepreneurship so that they can play a still better role). Renmin Ribao, 26 September. http://cpc.people.com.cn/n1/2017/0926/c64387-29558638.html (accessed 3 April 2018).
Zhonggong Zhongyang Guowuyuan (2018). Guanyu quanmian jiaqiang shengtai huanjing baohu jianjue dahao wuran fangzhi gongjian zhande yijian (Opinion of the CCP Central Committee and the State Council on strengthening ecological and environmental protection and resolutely prevent and fight pollution). http://www.gov.cn/zhengce/2018-06/24/content_5300953.htm (accessed 12 August 2018).
Zhou, Xincheng. (2018). Gongchandang ren keyi ba ziji lilun gaikuo wei yijuhua: xiaomie siyouzhi (Communists can put their own theory in a nutshell: Eradicate the private ownership system). http://m.kdnet.net/share-12592200.html?sform=club (accessed 20 September 2018).
Zou, Lei. (2018) The Political Economy of China’s Belt and Road Initiative. Singapore: World Scientific.
Zou, Yating. (2016). Xinxing zhengshang guanxi. ‘Qin’ ‘qing’ zai xin ge you suo zun (Xi Jinping zhiguo li zhengguan jianci) (New state-business relations. ‘Intimate’, ‘just and honest’, everybody has to bear that in mind and to comply with it). Renmin Ribao haiwaiban (People’s Daily Overseas Edition), 5 August.
1The ‘National Bourgeoisie’ consisted of indigenous entrepreneurs not allied with foreign investors, multinational corporations, foreign banks, or the military.
2For the situation of private entrepreneurship in the Maoist era, see Solinger (1984) and Heberer (1989). For more recent historical accounts of the rise of the private economy in post-Mao China, see, e.g. Zheng and Yang (2011), Coase and Wang (2013), Chen (2015), Wu and Ma (2016), and Lin (2017). See also Chen and Naughton (2017), who have proposed a sequence of three generations of a ‘China model’ of economic development.
3Since undisguised resistance would have been laden with risk, the peasants developed a strategy of permanent though limited fence-breaking by, for instance, ignoring legal restrictions of private economic activities, something James C. Scott has classified as ‘everyday forms of peasant resistance’ (Scott, 1985, 1989, see Chapter 3).
4The process of de-collectivization in agriculture was typical for later developments in the industrial and service sectors as well: Limited transgressions of laws or regulations which were tolerated by the regime induced copycat effects leading to an extensive practice of ‘fence-breaking’, first at the grassroots and soon across all administrative tiers (Fforde and de Vylder, 1996: 1). The success of the private shadow economy in solving supply-side shortages and creating jobs discouraged suppression by party leaders, once again inducing new transgressions of the law, to the extent that reforms in areas other than the economy were soon brought about as well.
5This was a somewhat arbitrary limit taken from a comment of Karl Marx made in Chapter 9 of the third volume of Capital according to which a capitalist enterprise with eight and more employees would appropriate the workers’ surplus value, hence committing capitalist exploitation.
6In 1988, the Chinese State Council enacted the ‘Provisional Regulations for Private Enterprises of the PR of China’ (Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo siying qiye zanxing tiaoli), see Heberer (1989: 400–412) and, for the full text in Chinese, Renmin Ribao, 29 June 1988.
7The state constitution, which was amended in December 1982, stated in Article 11 that the individual economy was a supplement to the socialist public economy and was protected by the state.
8‘Let some become rich first’ (Rang yi bufen ren xian fuqilai), statement made by Deng Xiaoping on 23 October 1985, when meeting a delegation of U.S. entrepreneurs. http://cpc.people.com.cn/GB/34136/2569304.html (accessed 30 March 2018).
9The full text of the interview conducted by Thomas Heberer (in German) in Die Welt, 17 November 1986. Hu Deping’s book contains its Chinese part on private sector development.
10Article 11 of the 1982 constitution was revised as follows: ‘The State permits the private sector of the economy to exist and develop within the limits prescribed by law. The private sector of the economy is a supplement