Sociology. Anthony Giddens
theories
Like functionalists, sociologists using conflict theories emphasize the importance of social structures, advancing a comprehensive ‘model’ to explain how society works. However, conflict theorists reject functionalism’s emphasis on consensus. Instead, they highlight the importance of social divisions and concentrate on issues of power, inequality and competitive struggle. They tend to see society as composed of distinct groups, each pursuing its own interests, which means the potential for conflict is always present. Conflict theorists examine the tensions between dominant and disadvantaged groups, looking to understand how relationships of control are established and maintained.
Both Marx and later Marxist approaches have been highly influential in conflict theory, though it is important to note that by no means all conflict theories are Marxist. Feminism, for example, is a form of conflict theory which concentrates on gender inequality – the unequal situation between men and women that exists in most societies. For some feminist theorists, gender inequality is more significant than class-based inequality and has a much longer history. Male domination of society continues even today, though women’s political activism has made an impact in many areas of life, bringing about a measure of equality (Abbott et al. 2005).
As a conflict perspective in sociology, feminism draws attention to issues that sociologists previously ignored. In particular, feminist research and theorizing look at the micro level as well as the macro world of large social structures. For example, feminists have studied unequal gender relations in domestic situations and other ‘private’ spheres of life (such as sexual relations), a controversial move in the 1960s and 1970s (Rahman and Jackson 2010). Feminists have also carried out research into the use of gender stereotypes and language in interactions, pointing out and challenging many taken-for-granted ‘malestream’ assumptions (favouring men over women) built into the structure of how we describe and think about the world. We can see this in numerous everyday words and expressions, such as chairman, mankind (to discuss humanity as such) and man-made. This is a simple illustration of the myriad ways in which women’s subordinate position in society is reflected in the unacknowledged male domination of language itself.
Feminists do not ignore the macro level either. Feminist studies have shown that gender inequality is embedded within modern social structures such as legal systems, education and schooling, government and politics, and many more. Similarly, in order to demonstrate the extent and scope of gender inequality, feminist work has made use of official statistics and examined patterns of change over long time periods. Feminist theorizing has continually developed into new areas and types of theory, and these are covered in more detail later in the book.
Feminist research and theorizing can be found throughout the various chapters of the book, but there are significant discussions of feminist theory and its development in chapter 3, ‘Theories and Perspectives’, and chapter 7, ‘Gender and Sexuality’.
Symbolic interactionism
Weber’s social action approach inspired many ‘interactionist’ forms of sociology. One of the most influential has been symbolic interactionism, which also owes much to the American social philosopher George Herbert Mead (1863–1931). Symbolic interactionism springs from a concern with language and meaning. Mead argues that language allows us to become self-conscious beings – aware of our own individuality and able to see ourselves ‘as others see us’. The key element in this process is the symbol. A symbol is something that stands for something else. For example, words that refer to objects are symbols which represent what we mean. The word ‘spoon’ is a symbol we use to describe the utensil that we use to consume soup. Non-verbal gestures and forms of communication are also symbols. Waving at someone or making a rude gesture both have symbolic value.
Symbolic interactionism directs our attention to the details of interpersonal interaction and how that detail is used to make sense of what others say and do. Sociologists influenced by symbolic interactionism often focus on face-to-face interactions in the context of everyday life. They stress the role interactions play in creating society and its institutions. Max Weber was an important indirect influence on this theoretical approach because, although he acknowledged the existence of social structures, he held that these were created through the actions of individuals.
While the symbolic interactionist perspective has yielded many insights into the nature of our actions in the course of day-to-day social life, it has been criticized for ignoring the larger issues of power and social structure and how these serve to constrain individual action. However, one very good example of interactionism that does take into account such issues is Arlie Hochschild’s (1983) The Managed Heart: Commercialization of Human Feeling. Hochschild observed training sessions and carried out interviews at Delta Airlines’ Stewardess Training Centre in Atlanta, USA. She watched flight attendants being trained to manage their feelings as well as learning other skills. Hochschild (2012 [1983]: 4) recalled the comments of one instructor, a pilot: ‘Now girls, I want you to go out there and really smile’, he instructed. ‘Your smile is your biggest asset. I want you to go out there and use it. Smile. Really smile. Really lay it on.’
Hochschild’s research found that, as Western economies have become increasingly based on the delivery of services, the emotional style of the work we do needs to be understood. Her study of ‘customer service’ training might be familiar to anyone who has worked in fast food restaurants, shops or bars. Hochschild calls this training a form of ‘emotional labour’ – labour that requires the management of feelings in order to create a publicly observable and acceptable facial and bodily display. According to Hochschild, companies providing services increasingly lay claim not only to workers’ physical activity but also to their presentation of emotions.
In many service industries, workers’ skills extend to the continuous management of their public display of emotions, which can be as exhausting as other forms of work.
This research considered an aspect of life that most people took for granted and showed that sociology could deepen our understanding of it. Hochschild found that service workers – like physical labourers – often feel a sense of distance or alienation from the particular aspect of themselves that is given up in work. The physical labourer’s arm, for example, might come to feel like a piece of machinery and only incidentally a part of the person moving it. Likewise, service workers often told Hochschild that their smiles were on them but not of them. In other words, they felt distanced from their own emotions. Hochschild’s book is an influential application of symbolic interactionism, and many other scholars have built on her ideas to expand the interactionist tradition.
Traditions and theories
Functionalism, conflict theory and symbolic interactionism are theoretical traditions – broad, overall orientations to the subject matter of sociology. However, we can make a distinction between these broad traditions and the particular theories which develop from them. Theories are more narrowly focused and are attempts to explain particular social conditions, events or social changes. For example, feminism is part of the conflict tradition, as feminists see a basic conflict in society between the interests of men and women. But feminist sociologists have also devised numerous narrower theories to explain specific aspects of gender relations (patterned relationships between men and women), such as why more married women are entering paid work, why women are still seen as responsible for childcare, or why young men now do less well in education than young women. Many theories of this kind have been developed in the different areas of life that sociologists study.
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