The Political Economy of the BRICS Countries. Группа авторов
are deep rooted issues of unemployment, low income, low levels of educational attainment, and poor health infrastructure. Like China, India too has argued in international fora that it needs to grow faster for a longer period of time to reduce poverty, and hence may not be able to bring down its emission levels in the near future.
The strategy for sustainable development in India is contained in a detailed study ‘Empowering People for Sustainable Development’ (EPSD). There was no separate plan for sustainable development. Details of projects would be contained in the nation’s 5-year plan documents, until recently when formal planning was discontinued altogether. The EPSD has four main objectives. They are combating poverty, empowering people, using core competence in science and technology, and setting environmental standards, conservation of natural resources, and improving the core sectors of the economy. There is a sectoral thrust in the EPSD document. While the natural environment’s importance is acknowledged, there is an equal importance assigned to the growth of the energy sector, transportation, and manufacturing industry. Separate targets are set and monitored such as the poverty rate, gender gaps, increase in forest cover, reduction in population growth rate, and increased access to education.
According to the Ministry of Environment and Forests, the economy is considered as a sub-system of the regional ecosystem. Hence, a large number of legislations and regulations have been enacted since the 1980s covering air, water, biodiversity, forests, pollution control, and waste management. There are a number of specialized institutions as well that provide research and knowledge for policymakers to take more informed decisions, like the Centre for Environment Education and the Tata Energy and Resource Institute and a number of other civil society organizations.
Brazil
Brazil, in the set of BRICS, is the most efficient economy. Brazil is the leading economy in South America and contains rich resources in the form of good agricultural land, mines, as well as developed manufacturing and services sectors. Its per capita income is much higher than that of China or India. Its macroeconomic policies have resulted in low inflation and low public debt. Brazil’s environmental performance is creditable, despite its constant pressure to preserve and maintain its large rainforest terrain. Its environmental efficiency value at 90% is quite good in this regard. Brazil is one of the leaders in climate negotiations by voluntarily pledging to cut emissions. The challenges Brazil face pertain to deforestation, soil degradation, oil spills, water pollution, and loss of biodiversity. In terms of social efficiency, Brazil ranked first. Brazil’s stable economic growth (until the recent slowdown) improved social welfare outcomes, and programs designed to lower inequalities have all gone well for the economy.
Brazil’s strategies to combat unsustainable development focus on the following broad areas: the transition to a knowledge society, social inclusion for solidarity, rural and urban sustainability, strategic use of natural resources like water, forests, biodiversity, and improved governability and ethics to promote sustainability. Brazil, however, does not embed its sustainability strategy as a national policy objective, though policy objectives do include economic development, social upliftment, and environmental protection. While the concept of responsibility to the future is not a central theme in its policies, the reduction of social and economic inequalities is a top priority. This is done through a twin approach. A federal agency is assigned the task of distributing free food and making compensatory redistributive policies. The government also promotes a variety of specific partnerships among civil society organizations, private sector companies, and government departments to design and support programs for poverty reduction.
In terms of selected initiatives of interest, Brazil has come up with an innovative law that defines and penalizes a set of activities dubbed as environmental crimes, which include many infractions from killing of wild animals to creating industrial pollution. Brazil is home to the largest part of the Amazon rainforest, and its destruction often catches the attention of the world simply because of the sheer magnitude of natural wealth contained in the rainforest. A special control program has been designed by the Brazilian government to limit deforestation and unauthorized exploitation. A special commission has also been set up to coordinate the sustainable development presided over by the nation’s Minister of the Environment.
Russia
Russia has undergone many changes since the collapse of socialism. It is now market based, participating in the global economy. Russia, however, has been depending heavily on the exploitation of its natural resources like oil, and hence its economic efficiency has suffered. In the BRICS group, Russia has the second lowest GDP after South Africa. Russia’s carbon dioxide emissions remain high as well. Russia has experienced growth in manufacturing industries and services, but still continues to remain vulnerable to global oil price fluctuations. Russia is also exposed to local and regional strife that often attracts international sanctions. On the social efficiency score, Russia is ranked second after Brazil. A large part of this social development is a remnant inherited from the socialist past — especially in the areas of education and health. Russia has had a relatively high per capita GDP and strong growth in wages and incomes. However, there remain disagreements about the source of this recent growth: whether it is from a strong economic base of industrialization, or whether it was due to the rising prices of oil and natural gas.
Russia is no longer a superpower and its economy has been slowing down in the recent past, primarily due to the sanctions against the nation imposed by EU as well as USA after the Ukraine crisis and the annexation of Crimea. Environmental problems like the melting of the permafrost and the sudden drought that decimated the wheat crop in 2010 and sent global wheat prices soaring are somewhat in line with the kind of problems faced by the other BRICS nations. However, political challenges are much more complex than those faced by the others in BRICS. Russia has also cracked down on NGOs doing work for social upliftment and environmental protection, treating them as foreign agents if they received international grants.
However, some good news still emerges out of Russia on the purely environmental front. Russia houses some of the world’s most important fisheries. The Walleye Pollock Fishery in the Sea of Okhotsk has earned the Marine Stewardship Council Sustainability Certification, and the cod fishery in the Barents Sea is being considered as a model of international cooperation. Forestry is another area that makes Russia particularly vulnerable to environmental degradation. About 45% of land in Russia contains 22% of the world’s total forest cover. Of this, 33 million hectares of forests have earned the Forestry Stewardship Certification for responsible forest management.
South Africa
South Africa is the smallest of the BRICS nations. On the economic efficiency front, it is quite modest with a mean efficiency of 66%. It was only quite recently that the nation embarked on a comprehensive policy plan to promote inclusive growth, infrastructure, food security, education, rural development, and improved public services especially in the area of health. South Africa is yet to emerge from its history of violence and oppression. As far as environmental efficiency is concerned, South Africa ranks at the top. Since industrial activity is low and level of inputs is the lowest among the BRICS nations, it has the lowest carbon dioxide emissions. In the social efficiency index, its performance is not good. It has the lowest life expectancy at birth within this group at 51.4 years. Health problems widely prevalent in this nation also contribute to a low social efficiency index. These problems not only pertain to violence but also to high incidence of HIV and tuberculosis. South Africa also suffers from very high unemployment rates.
Given South Africa’s natural resources and scenic beauty, tourism is a major industry, and ecotourism has become a focus area of business. The industry drives economic growth and job creation. The nation attracts more than 10 million tourists annually. The problem is to ensure that while this industry grows, congestion and pollution created by tourists do not erode the quality of the natural environment and the extent of biodiversity. South Africa’s coast is also a valuable resource for the economy. Coastal ecosystems provide natural erosion control and waste management. The economy’s coastal and marine resources are under threat mainly because of excessive urbanization around the major coastal ports and heavy shipping traffic. Fishing is another major activity in South Africa.