Anthropology For Dummies. Cameron M. Smith
Human language is extraordinarily fast, communicating information at a high speed.
Human language is extraordinarily dense, communicating a lot of information per unit of time.
Human language is extraordinarily subtle, with the use of metaphor being common and radically multiplying the potential meaning of any word, sentence, or even idea.
THE BOY WHO CRIED WHORF
One of the most fascinating and controversial concepts in linguistic anthropology is the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, forwarded in the 1930s by linguists Edward Sapir and Benjamin Whorf. The two argued that language does as much to create human reality as it does to reflect the real world.
In 1940, Whorf wrote, “We dissect nature along lines laid down by our native languages. The categories and types that we isolate from the world of phenomena we do not find there because they stare every observer in the face; on the contrary, the world is presented in a kaleidoscopic flux of impressions which has to be organized by our minds — and this means largely by the linguistic systems by our minds. We cut nature up, organize it into concepts, and ascribe significances as we do, largely because we are parties to an agreement to organize it in this way — an agreement that holds throughout our speech community and is codified in the patterns of our language. The agreement is, of course, an implicit and unstated one, but its terms are absolutely obligatory; we cannot talk at all except by subscribing to the organization and classification of data which the agreement decrees.”
In other words, although an objective reality exists — jump off a cliff and you will die, whether you call it “flying” or “dying” — your impressions of that world are strongly shaped by the vocabulary you have to describe that world. For me, the lesson is to increase your vocabulary, and to learn other languages or at least words from other languages — you never know what new things you may find in the world.
Gesture and body language
In addition to spoken human language, we also use gesture, or what Adam Kendon, editor of the scholarly journal Gesture, has called “visible action as utterance.” Gesture isn’t exactly the same as a word; it’s more of a reinforcement of what you’re saying aloud. And it’s very important. You can imagine how using the wrong gestures in the wrong circumstances could cost you heavily!
Gestures vary widely worldwide, but some common patterns occur; gestures are used globally to point, indicate a state of mind, reinforce a verbal statement, negate a verbal statement (for example, to indicate sarcasm, maybe by using “air quotes”), or to mark beginning or ending points in a conversation.
These are fascinating issues considering that the first languages most likely had a strong gestural component, and you could potentially discover much about them by studying modern gesture. Figure 3-3 shows some polite gestures of 17th-century Europe; the upper left gesture is “adoration,” the upper right “reconciliation,” the lower left “impatience,” the lower right “demonstration,” and the middle “benediction.” You can easily imagine using these gestures in your own communication; think about how different communication is without them … for example, over email.
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FIGURE 3-3: Author’s rendering of drawings in John Bulwer’s work on gesture in European society.
Cultural Anthropology: The Study of Living Societies
Whereas archaeology studies ancient cultures, cultural anthropology focuses on living societies. Some reasons include
An attempt to identify cultural similarities worldwide: Such similarities may offer very important insights into what it is to be human.
An attempt to identify cultural differences worldwide: Such differences can illustrate the diverse ways humans have found to survive across the globe and, in some cases, through time.
An attempt to correct supposedly common-sense ideas about humanity: This process is important because most cultures worldwide believe their own way of living is the most appropriate and right for all of humanity.
CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY: AN EQUAL-OPPORTUNITY WHISTLE-BLOWER
Attempting to rectify common-sense evaluations of the rest of the world is a sort of corrective for human perception of itself. The idea that one’s own culture is the best and most appropriate way to live is called ethnocentrism, and it’s been used to justify discrimination against people outside ones’ own culture for centuries and worldwide. Keep in mind that just because a cultural practice exists doesn’t necessarily mean that it’s good for the culture at large; like slavery, it may benefit a relative few at the expense of many. Robert G. Edgerton’s book Sick Societies demonstrates that many human cultural adaptations are actually maladaptations, adaptations that are actually bad for the society rather than beneficial. For example, some agricultural practices provide high yields in the short run but may burn out the soil in the long run.
Western civilization isn’t shy about pointing out obvious problems of its own — such as racial discrimination or the fact that women make significantly less money than men at the same jobs — and should remain open to the possibility that such problems are possible in other cultures. In this way, cultural anthropology isn’t a discipline focused on bashing Western civilization; it’s an objective science that doesn’t idealize any society over another.
Putting the culture in cultural anthropology
Whatever end you hope to achieve through cultural anthropology, the means are going to be a study of culture. Culture has been defined in many ways; I give you a definition in the section “The biocultural animal” earlier in this chapter, and you can take entire graduate-level courses just to grapple with culture theory. Generally speaking, culture encompasses everything from attitudes toward material objects to philosophical, political, and religious concepts.
Important features of culture include the following:
Culture isn’t genetic; it’s learned. Each new generation doesn’t receive it in genes but from parents, siblings, and anyone else in the culture (largely through language).
Culture is shared among a population, but it allows variation within it. Individuals of a culture may have their own interpretations of the culture’s set of descriptions of the universe and instructions for how to live properly in it. This discrepancy is important because it recognizes a major characteristic of humanity: individuality, the fact that humans aren’t typically of one mind but rather are individuals with a great deal of individual personality (humans are messy in this way!).
Cultural information is often symbolic. Symbols — which are linguistic, visual, and gestural metaphors that stand for something else — are heavily influential in the communication of culture from one generation to the next.
Although cultural information rides in the brain, humans can also express it physically. Material objects — for example, seagoing canoes, totem poles, or sports cars — are also expressions of certain cultural ideas. Even the most apparently utilitarian artifacts, like writing pens, can and often do carry cultural information. A glitter-spangled, bubblegum-pink pen is more likely to belong to an adolescent girl than to a public official; the official probably requires a fancier pen to project a certain image in public