Island Life; Or, The Phenomena and Causes of Insular Faunas and Floras. Alfred Russel Wallace
exceptional cases may be considerably altered in a few years or centuries. Each species is moreover usually limited to one continuous area, over the whole of which it is more or less frequently to be met with, but there are many apparent and some real exceptions to this rule. Some animals are so adapted to certain kinds of country—as to forests or marshes, mountains or deserts—that they cannot, permanently, live elsewhere. These may be found scattered over a wide area in suitable spots only, but can hardly on that account be said to have several distinct areas of distribution. As an example we may name the chamois, which lives only on high mountains, but is found in the Pyrenees, the Alps, the Carpathians, in some of the Greek mountains and the Caucasus. The variable hare is another and more remarkable case, being found all over Northern Europe and Asia beyond lat. 55°, and also in Scotland and Ireland. In central Europe it is unknown till we come to the Alps, the Pyrenees, and the Caucasus, where it again appears. This is one of the best cases known of the discontinuous distribution of a species, there being a gap of about a thousand miles between its southern limits in Russia, and its reappearance in the Alps. There are of course numerous instances in which species occur in two or more islands, or in an island and continent, and are thus rendered discontinuous by the sea, but these involve questions of changes in sea and land which we shall have to consider further on. Other cases are believed to exist of still wider separation of a species, as with the marsh titmice and the reed buntings of Europe and Japan, where similar forms are found in the extreme localities, while distinct varieties or sub-species, inhabit the intervening districts.
Extent and Limitations of Specific Areas.—Leaving for the present these cases of want of continuity in a species, we find the most wide difference between the extent of country occupied, varying in fact from a few square miles to almost the entire land surface of the globe. Among the mammalia, however, the same species seldom inhabits both the old and new worlds, unless they are strictly arctic animals, as the reindeer, the elk, the arctic fox, the glutton, the ermine, and some others. The common wolf of Europe and Northern Asia is thought by many naturalists to be identical with the variously coloured wolves of North America extending from the Arctic Ocean to Mexico, in which case this will have perhaps the widest range of any species of mammal. Little doubt exists as to the identity of the brown bears and the beavers of Europe and North America; but all these species range up to the arctic circle, and there is no example of a mammal universally admitted to be identical yet confined to the temperate zones of the two hemispheres. Among the undisputed species of mammalia the leopard has an enormous range, extending all over Africa and South Asia to Borneo and the east of China, and thus having probably the widest range of any known mammal. The winged mammalia have not usually very wide ranges, there being only one bat common to the Old and New Worlds. This is a British species, Vesperugo serotinus, which is found over the larger part of North America, Europe and Asia, as far as Pekin, and even extends into tropical Africa, thus rivalling the leopard and the wolf in the extent of country it occupies.
Of very restricted ranges there are many examples, but some of these are subject to doubts as to the distinctness of the species or as to its geographical limits being really known. In Europe we have a distinct species of ibex (Capra Pyrenaica) confined to the Pyrenean mountains, while the true marmot is restricted to the Alpine range. More remarkable is the Pyrenean water-mole (Mygale Pyrenaica), a curious small insectivorous animal found only in a few places in the northern valleys of the Pyrenees. In islands there are many cases of undoubted restriction of species to a small area, but these involve a different question from the range of species on continents where there is no apparent obstacle to their wider extension.
Specific range of Birds.—Among birds we find instances of much wider range of species, which is only what might be expected considering their powers of flight; but, what is very curious, we also find more striking (though perhaps not more frequent) examples of extreme limitation of range among birds than among mammals. Of the former phenomenon perhaps the most remarkable case is that afforded by the osprey or fishing-hawk, which ranges over the greater portion of all the continents, as far as Brazil, South Africa, the Malay Islands, and Tasmania. The barn owl (Strix flammea) has nearly as wide a range, but in this case there is more diversity of opinion as to the specific difference of many of the forms inhabiting remote countries, some of which seem undoubtedly to be distinct. Among passerine birds the raven has probably the widest range, extending from the arctic regions to Texas and New Mexico in America, and to North India and Lake Baikal in Asia; while the little northern willow-wren (Phylloscopus borealis) ranges from arctic Norway across Asia to Alaska, and southward to Ceylon, China, Borneo, and Timor.
Of very restricted continental ranges the best examples in Europe are, the little blue magpie (Cyanopica cooki) confined to the central portions of the Spanish peninsula; and the Italian sparrow found only in Italy and Corsica. In Asia, Palestine affords some examples of birds of very restricted range—a beautiful sun-bird (Nectarinea osea) a peculiar starling (Amydrus tristramii) and some others, being almost or quite confined to the warmer portions of the valley of the Jordan. In the Himalayas there are numbers of birds which have very restricted ranges, but those of the Neilgherries are perhaps better known, several species of laughing thrushes and some other birds being found only on the summits of these mountains. The most wonderfully restricted ranges are, however, to be found among the humming-birds of tropical America. The great volcanic peaks of Chimborazo and Pichincha have each a peculiar species of humming-bird confined to a belt just below the limits of perpetual snow, while the extinct volcano of Chiriqui in Veragua has a species confined to its wooded crater. One of the most strange and beautiful of the humming-birds (Loddigesia mirabilis) was obtained once only, more than forty years ago, near Chachapoyas in the Andes of northern Peru; and though Mr. Gould sent many drawings of the bird to people visiting the district and for many years offered a high reward for a specimen, no other has ever been seen![4]
The above details will sufficiently explain what is meant by the "specific area" or range of a species. The very wide and very narrow ranges are exceptional, the great majority of species both of mammals and birds ranging over moderately wide areas, which present no striking contrasts in climate and physical conditions. Thus a large proportion of European birds range over the whole continent in an east and west direction, but considerable numbers are restricted either to the northern or the southern half. In Africa some species range over all the continent south of the desert, while large numbers are restricted to the equatorial forests, or to the upland plains. In North America, if we exclude the tropical and the arctic portions, a considerable number of species range over all the temperate parts of the continent, while still more are restricted to the east, the centre, or the west, respectively.
Generic Areas.—Having thus obtained a tolerably clear idea of the main facts as to the distribution of isolated species, let us now consider those collections of closely-allied species termed genera. What a genus is will be sufficiently understood by a few illustrations. All the different kinds of dogs, jackals, and wolves belong to the dog genus, Canis; the tiger, lion, leopard, jaguar, and the wild cats, to the cat genus, Felis; the blackbird, song-thrush, missel-thrush, fieldfare, and many others to the thrush genus, Turdus; the crow, rook, raven, and jackdaw, to the crow genus, Corvus; but the magpie belongs to another, though closely-allied genus, Pica, distinguished by the different form and proportions of its wings and tail from all the species of the crow genus. The number of species in a genus varies greatly, from one up to several hundreds. The giraffe, the glutton, the walrus, the bearded reedling, the secretary-bird, and many others, have no close allies, and each forms a genus by itself. The beaver genus, Castor, and the camel genus, Camelus, each consist of two species. On the other hand, the deer genus, Cervus has forty species; the mouse and rat genus, Mus more than a hundred species; and there is about the same number of the thrush genus; while among the lower classes of animals genera are often very extensive, the fine genus Papilio, or swallow-tailed butterflies, containing more than four hundred species; and Cicindela, which includes our native tiger beetles, has about the same number. Many genera of shells are very extensive, and one of them—the genus Helix, including the commonest snails, and ranging all over the world—is probably the most extensive in the animal kingdom, numbering about two thousand described species.[5]
Separate and Overlapping Areas.—The species of a genus are distributed in two ways. Either