Periodontics. Fernando Suarez
2013;84(4 suppl):S113–S134.
32. Ervasti T, Knuuttila M, Pohjamo L, Haukipuro K. Relation between control of diabetes and gingival bleeding. J Periodontol 1985;56:154–157.
33. Nelson RG, Shlossman M, Budding LM, et al. Periodontal disease and NIDDM in Pima Indians. Diabetes Care 1990;13:836–840.
34. Emrich LJ, Shlossman M, Genco RJ. Periodontal disease in non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. J Periodontol 1991;62:123–131.
35. Kowall B, Holtfreter B, Völzke H, et al. Pre-diabetes and well-controlled diabetes are not associated with periodontal disease: The SHIP Trend Study. J Clin Periodontol 2015;42:422–430.
36. Christgau M, Palitzsch KD, Schmalz G, Kreiner U, Frenzel S. Healing response to non-surgical periodontal therapy in patients with diabetes mellitus: Clinical, microbiological, and immunologic results. J Clin Periodontol 1998;25:112–124.
37. Lalla E, Kaplan S, Chang SM, et al. Periodontal infection profiles in type 1 diabetes. J Clin Periodontol 2006;33:855–862.
38. Janket SJ, Wightman A, Baird AE, Van Dyke TE, Jones JA. Does periodontal treatment improve glycemic control in diabetic patients? A meta-analysis of intervention studies. J Dent Res 2005;84:1154–1159.
39. Kiran M, Arpak N, Unsal E, Erdoğan MF. The effect of improved periodontal health on metabolic control in type 2 diabetes mellitus. J Clin Periodontol 2005;32:266–272.
40. Socransky SS, Haffajee AD, Cugini MA, Smith C, Kent RL Jr. Microbial complexes in subgingival plaque. J Clin Periodontol 1998;25:134–144.
41. Listgarten MA, Helldén L. Relative distribution of bacteria at clinically healthy and periodontally diseased sites in humans. J Clin Periodontol 1978;5:115–132.
42. Marazita ML, Burmeister JA, Gunsolley JC, Koertge TE, Lake K, Schenkein HA. Evidence for autosomal dominant inheritance and race-specific heterogeneity in early-onset periodontitis. J Periodontol 1994;65:623–630.
43. Melvin WL, Sandifer JB, Gray JL. The prevalence and sex ratio of juvenile periodontitis in a young racially mixed population. J Periodontol 1991;62:330–334.
44. Michalowicz BS, Diehl SR, Gunsolley JC, et al. Evidence of a substantial genetic basis for risk of adult periodontitis. J Periodontol 2000;71:1699–1707.
45. Papapanou PN, Neiderud AM, Sandros J, Dahlén G. Interleukin-1 gene polymorphism and periodontal status. A case-control study. J Clin Periodontol 2001;28:389–396.
46. Kornman KS, Crane A, Wang HY, di Giovine FS, Newman MG, Pirk FW, et al. The interleukin-1 genotype as a severity factor in adult periodontal disease. J Clin Periodontol 1997;24:72–77.
47. Eke PI, Dye BA, Wei L, et al. Prevalence of periodontitis in adults in the United States: 2009 and 2010. J Dent Res 2012;91:914–920.
48. Papapanou PN, Lindhe J. Preservation of probing attachment and alveolar bone levels in 2 random population samples. J Clin Periodontol 1992;19:583–588.
49. Billings M, Holtfreter B, Papapanou PN, Mitnik GL, Kocher T, Dye BA. Age-dependent distribution of periodontitis in two countries: Findings from NHANES 2009 to 2014 and SHIP-TREND 2008 to 2012. J Periodontol 2018;89(suppl 1):S140–S158.
50. Van der Velden U, Abbas F, Armand S, et al. Java project on periodontal diseases. The natural development of periodontitis: Risk factors, risk predictors and risk determinants. J Clin Periodontol 2006;33:540–548.
51. Adriaens LM, Alessandri R, Spörri S, Lang NP, Persson GR. Does pregnancy have an impact on the subgingival microbiota? J Periodontol 2009;80:72–81.
52. Mascarenhas P, Gapski R, Al-Shammari K, Wang HL. Influence of sex hormones on the periodontium. J Clin Periodontol 2003;30:671–681.
53. Löe H, Brown LJ. Early onset periodontitis in the United States of America. J Periodontol 1991;62:608–616.
54. Suvan J, D’Aiuto F, Moles DR, Petrie A, Donos N. Association between overweight/obesity and periodontitis in adults. A systematic review. Obes Rev 2011;12:e381–e404.
55. Haffajee AD, Socransky SS. Relation of body mass index, periodontitis and Tannerella forsythia. J Clin Periodontol 2009;36:89–99.
56. Gorman A, Kaye EK, Apovian C, Fung TT, Nunn M, Garcia RI. Overweight and obesity predict time to periodontal disease progression in men. J Clin Periodontol 2012;39:107–114.
57. Wactawski-Wende J, Hausmann E, Hovey K, Trevisan M, Grossi S, Genco RJ. The association between osteoporosis and alveolar crestal height in postmenopausal women. J Periodontol 2005;76(suppl 11S):2116–2124.
58. Brennan RM, Genco RJ, Hovey KM, Trevisan M, Wactawski-Wende J. Clinical attachment loss, systemic bone density, and subgingival calculus in postmenopausal women. J Periodontol 2007;78:2104–2111.
59. Genco RJ, Ho AW, Grossi SG, Dunford RG, Tedesco LA. Relationship of stress, distress and inadequate coping behaviors to periodontal disease. J Periodontol 1999;70:711–723.
60. da Silva AM, Newman HN, Oakley DA. Psychosocial factors in inflammatory periodontal diseases. A review. J Clin Periodontol 1995;22:516–526.
61. Tezal M, Grossi SG, Ho AW, Genco RJ. Alcohol consumption and periodontal disease. The Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. J Clin Periodontol 2004;31:484–488.
62. Amaral Cda S, Luiz RR, Leão AT. The relationship between alcohol dependence and periodontal disease. J Periodontol 2008;79:993–998.
63. Kaur S, Bright R, Proudman SM, Bartold PM. Does periodontal treatment influence clinical and biochemical measures for rheumatoid arthritis? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Semin Arthritis Rheum 2014;44:113–122.
64. Lang NP, Adler R, Joss A, Nyman S. Absence of bleeding on probing. An indicator of periodontal stability. J Clin Periodontol 1990;17:714–721.
65. Lang NP, Joss A, Orsanic T, Gusberti FA, Siegrist BE. Bleeding on probing. A predictor for the progression of periodontal disease? J Clin Periodontol 1986;13:590–596.
66. Matuliene G, Pjetursson BE, Salvi GE, et al. Influence of residual pockets on progression of periodontitis and tooth loss: Results after 11 years of maintenance. J Clin Periodontol 2008;35:685–695.
67. Rams TE, Listgarten MA, Slots J. Utility of radiographic crestal lamina dura for predicting periodontitis disease-activity. J Clin Periodontol 1994;21:571–576.
68. Greenstein G, Polson A, Iker H, Meitner S. Associations between crestal lamina dura and periodontal status. J Periodontol 1981;52:362–366.
LOCAL ANATOMICAL AND CONTRIBUTING FACTORS
Carlos Garaicoa-Pazmiño, DDS, MS
DEFINITIONS AND TERMINOLOGY
Biofilm: A multispecies community of microorganisms that adhere to each other and a surface and are encased in an extracellular matrix. The extracellular matrix is a complex polymeric substance that protects the microorganisms from environmental stresses. Bacteria living in a biofilm have a different physiology from free-living bacteria and are more difficult to eradicate with antibiotics. Dental plaque is the prototypical example of a biofilm.1
Calculus: A hard concretion that forms on teeth or dental prostheses through calcification of microbial plaque.1
Subgingival calculus: Calculus