Rhodes Scholars, Oxford, and the Creation of an American Elite. Thomas J. Schaeper
for Rhodes Scholars returning from England. Scholars who obtained a B.A. in law and then the more advanced B.C.L. (Bachelor of Civil Law) could be granted exemption from the first year of law school. Scholars who obtained a B.A. in physiology generally were able to skip their first year of medical school.
Students who aspired to careers in academe had a more difficult problem. Oxford did not offer a doctorate.24 It did, however, offer two advanced research degrees, the B.Litt. (for work in literature, history, philosophy, and so on) and the B.Sc (for any of the natural sciences). These degrees required two or three years of extensive research on a particular topic and the production of a thesis of approximately 30,000 to 40,000 words. These research degrees had been established in the 1890s, partly to attract British and American students who otherwise might flock to German universities. There were at least three major problems facing Americans who chose to pursue these degrees. The first had to do with their very name. Everyone in Oxford knew that a Bachelor of Literature was an advanced degree, probably equal in rigor and work to an American Ph.D. But in the United States “B.Litt.” signified little more than “B.A.” Thus the holder of one of these degrees still faced the prospect of returning home to find that he must still attend an American graduate program before becoming eligible for a position in an American university.
The second problem regarding the research degrees was that, even if Rhodes Scholars wanted to pursue them, few had the necessary training. As noted above, most Rhodes Scholars found that work for a B.A. was challenging enough. The typical British student working for a B.Litt. was prepared for extensive, original, independent research. He had already experienced five years of specialized training in the field: his last two years in secondary school and his three years of B.A. work. On average two or three Americans per year opted for an advanced degree.
One of the most successful was Frank Aydelotte, who obtained a B.Litt. He studied sixteenth-century English literature, and his thesis turned into his first book: Elizabethan Rogues and Vagabonds (1913). He was exceptional in that he thrived on the challenge, though he always insisted that his B.Litt. should have been considered the equivalent of a Ph.D. He was fortunate in not having to attend graduate school upon return to the United States. Prior to going to Oxford he had already obtained a master's degree at Harvard. The combination of M.A. and B.Litt. sufficed to get him his first teaching job, at Indiana University.
The third problem with the research degrees was that the “independent” research and writing was independent in the extreme. Rhodes Scholars working for B.A.'s had enough trouble disciplining themselves for their weekly tutorials. Those working on a B.Sc. or B.Litt. might be lucky to see their supervisors once a term. They were expected to have the necessary background and intelligence to work unsupervised for two or three years and produce an important, original thesis. Already feeling homesick and alone in a foreign culture, some Americans failed at the effort.
All of the above considerations make it easy to understand another reason for the disappointing academic performance of the Americans. In Oxford they were working for degrees that would not mean much to graduate schools or future employers back in the United States. For a British student, on the other hand, obtaining a First or a Second was important for prestige and careers. But in the States, few persons, if any, would know whether a man had received a First, a Second, a Third, a Fourth, a mere pass, or no degree at all. In short, most Rhodes Scholars came to realize that they did not need to work as hard as they had prior to coming to Oxford, or as hard as they would once they returned home. Those who obtained Firsts or advanced degrees did so from a sense of personal pride, from genuine enthusiasm for their work, or from a desire to live up to expectations.
For some Americans the most important thing was simply being able to put “Rhodes Scholar” on their résumés. Few employers or acquaintances would inquire about what one had actually done in Oxford. For most Americans, therefore, the scholarship presented an opportunity to “have it all” – some study mixed with camaraderie, sports, living in a foreign country, and travel.
Rhodes Scholars from some British dominions tended to do better than the Americans, both socially and academically. Canadians, Australians, and others came from educational systems modeled on that of Britain and thus had fewer problems adjusting. Obtaining a degree from Oxford also meant much more to Canadians and others than it did to Americans, for Oxford was far superior (in fact as well as in reputation) to any university in their homelands. From the early days to the present, Rhodes Scholars from Australia and New Zealand have tended to hold the best academic records in Oxford.25
Report Card for the Early Years
What kind of report card can one give the scholarship program for its first fifteen or so years? Certainly most of the Rhodes Scholars enjoyed the experience. Even if they found many of the students and dons unfriendly, or at least cool, they valued the opportunity to live abroad. They made valuable friendships among themselves, and some of them were introduced to academic studies that would have a great bearing on their careers.
Surprisingly, one aspect of their lives in Oxford that they did not complain about was the near absence of women. Most Rhodes Scholars came from male-only universities and considered higher education for women to be more a frill than a preparation for a career. To be sure, the scholars occasionally joked about or bemoaned the fact that there were few women around. The women from Lady Margaret Hall and the other women's colleges generally stayed away from the men. Also, Americans observed that the women students dressed in such bulky, heavy sweaters and skirts that one felt little attraction toward them anyway. There is no evidence of any scholar ever protesting against the ban on marriage. Those who did marry prior to the end of their three years accepted the fact that they would have to resign their scholarships.
If Americans found many Britons unreceptive to their new-world chumminess and enthusiasm, they could always count on the warm hospitality of Mr. and Mrs. Wylie. Afternoon teas with the Oxford Secretary and his wife provided consolation for many a dispirited lad. When the first batch finished their work in 1907 and returned to their homes, Wylie began the practice of sending all former Rhodes Scholars cards and letters on their birthdays. This soon amounted to hundreds per year. He continued this practice long after he retired, until his death in 1952. He never lost touch with “his men.”
The fact that most Rhodes Scholars enjoyed their Oxford experience was demonstrated clearly when most of Europe became engulfed in war in the summer of 1914. With the exception of the German scholars, the Americans and all the others rallied to the cause of Britain and its allies.
Like the Americans, the German scholars had never distinguished themselves academically in Oxford. What made the Germans unique was their selection process. They were chosen directly by the Kaiser, and nearly all of them came from the nobility or the political elite. Their aristocratic background shone through when the first five arrived in Oxford in the fall of 1903. Francis Wylie described how he first met some of them:
I turned, to find myself facing three immaculate young Germans, complete with top hats, frock coats and patent-leather boots. They clicked their heels as one man, and bowed…And there was I, straight from golf on the old links…muddy and bedraggled…I carried them off and gave them tea; and that was the last I saw of the top hats.26
Due to the requirements of universal military service in their country, most of the Germans were permitted to remain in Oxford for only two years. This meant that few of them could take degrees. Despite this handicap, they appear to have got along well socially.27
When war was declared most of the Germans in Oxford returned home. Several of them, along with Germans from earlier years, served with distinction in their country's army. It was perhaps a small mark of the success of Cecil Rhodes' plan that friendships with German scholars enabled Americans and others to avoid some of the excesses of wartime propaganda. Germany may have become the enemy, but Rhodes Scholars knew that Germans were not cannibalistic Huns. After obtaining parliamentary authorization to amend the will, the trustees abolished the German scholarships in 1916 and in their place allotted more awards for students from the British Empire.28
By early 1915 the student population of Oxford had dwindled from about 3,500 to 600. Besides the Rhodes Scholars, about the only men left were those unfit