Rhodes Scholars, Oxford, and the Creation of an American Elite. Thomas J. Schaeper
Reforms
The War of 1914 marked a stunning turning point in world history. It shattered the confidence that Europeans and Americans had in their rationality and their moral and cultural superiority. The “White Man” had shown that he could be just as savage as any other people on the globe. A sense of disillusionment and anxiety replaced the naive optimism of the belle époque, and colonial peoples around the world began to speak of independence. By 1919 Europe could no longer deny that the United States and Japan had achieved Great Power status. The confusion of the war helped pave the way for Lenin's victory in Russia in the fall of 1917. Moreover, the real or imagined injustices of the Versailles Peace Settlement watered the seeds of Fascism and Nazism.
Fittingly, the period from 1917 to 1920 also brought revolutionary changes for Oxford and for Rhodes Scholars. In 1917 the university voted to establish a full-fledged doctoral program for the D.Phil. degree. This represented a huge step, for previously the university had gloried in its undergraduate tutorial system. More than the establishment of the B.Litt. and B.Sc. degrees in the 1890s, the creation of the D.Phil. signaled Oxford's acknowledgment that a world-class university must promote research as well as teaching.
The change also resulted from the complaints of Rhodes Scholars and other Americans, who bemoaned the lack of a doctoral degree that would be meaningful for their careers back home. The approaching end of the war was a perfect time to bring an end to this criticism. Since 1914 virtually no Americans had crossed the Atlantic to study in German universities. To prevent them from going there after the return of peace, Oxford hurriedly established its D.Phil.1
Another major change came in 1920, with the granting of full and equal status to the five women's colleges. Henceforth, women received the same degrees as men. Of course, decisions made on paper did not automatically translate into actions and attitudes. The women's colleges were “poor sisters” in terms of their financial resources and esteem. Official equality also did not mean coeducation. Women and men still sat apart in the lecture halls. Only in the 1970s did some of the undergraduate men's and women's colleges start to admit members of the opposite gender.
For Rhodes Scholarships there were also innovations during this period. In 1918 the Rhodes Trust appointed Frank Aydelotte to serve as its secretary in the United States. By 1925 similar national secretaries were selected in all the British dominions and colonies. Henceforth, Aydelotte and the other secretaries would supervise the direction of the program in their respective constituencies. This included advertising, public relations, recruitment of applicants, supervision of the selection process, and advisement of new Rhodes Scholars.
Due to his devotion to the task plus the fact that more than half of all Rhodes Scholars were Americans, Aydelotte soon came to play a role almost as important as those of Parkin and Wylie in the administration of the program. On his own initiative, since 1914, Aydelotte had revived both the quarterly journal (renaming it The American Oxonian) and the alumni association. When he was appointed American Secretary in 1918 he was a professor of English at M.I.T. In 1921 he assumed the presidency of Swarthmore College. At that time he handed over the editorship of the magazine to another former scholar, Tucker Brooke (1904), but he remained American Secretary until 1952. For nearly four decades he was, in effect, “Mr. Rhodes Scholar” in the United States.2
One of the first things that he did as Secretary was institute a new method of selection. He was unhappy with the low number of applicants and the overall quality of those selected – though, of course, he himself had been among them. Starting in 1919 the selection committees that he appointed in each of the states consisted of former Rhodes Scholars. They replaced the college presidents and governors who had done the job since 1904. He thought former scholars would be better able to choose candidates who would enjoy the social experience and succeed academically. Also, former Rhodes Scholars would be more likely to promote the program and increase the number of applicants. To ensure that the program did not become too much like a closed society or cult, he always chose as committee chair a non-Rhodes Scholar. This was usually a prominent businessman, politician, or academic from each respective state. These changes soon produced desirable results, and national secretaries in Canada, Australia, and elsewhere soon adopted the same methods.3
Oxford itself was also responsible for the increase in applicants. The new D.Phil. could be used as a recruitment tool. Even more important, however, was the university's decision in 1919 to drop the qualifying examination required of all Rhodes Scholars. It had been the Greek section of the test that had scared away many potential candidates. Soon after Rhodes Scholars were freed from the “burden” of learning Greek, the university eliminated the requirement for all students.4
This abandonment of one of the main pillars of its classical tradition was due in part to pressure from Rhodes Scholars, but it had been an issue of debate for more than two decades. Oxford's decision was also a reaction to what Cambridge had done. That “other” university had ended its Greek requirement for all students a few months earlier, and Oxford feared looking antiquarian and losing students to its competitor. Many in Oxford resented being forced by Cambridge to make this concession to the twentieth century. Cambridge had been debating this question for nearly fifty years, and yet Oxford dons condemned the “indecently prompt action” of their rival.5
Yet another concession by Oxford to Rhodes Scholars was the granting of senior status. Normally freshers admitted to the colleges were considered junior members until they passed the preliminary examinations at the end of their first year. After that, usually for the next two years, they were considered seniors. Prior to the First World War, Oxford granted immediate senior status to a handful of American Rhodes Scholars – those from a select few of the most prestigious universities. The list of universities was enlarged to about 150 in 1919, and by 1922 virtually every scholar who came to Oxford with a bachelor's degree from any American university was granted senior status.6
This change was important both socially and academically. Socially, it meant that they escaped some of the snubbing to which freshers were subject. Academically, it meant that most scholars could now obtain a B.A. in two years instead of three. This would permit him to return sooner to the United States to enter a career or graduate school. Or, even more frequently, it permitted him to spend his third year in Oxford pursuing an advanced degree. Getting such a late start on an advanced degree meant that a scholar would complete his thesis after returning to the United States or that he would have to use his own financial resources for an additional year or two in Oxford.
This period also witnessed changes in the central administration of the program. Francis Wylie remained as Oxford Secretary until 1931, when he was succeeded by C.K. Allen. Allen had been Professor of Jurisprudence at University College and would hold his new post until 1952. Through the 1920s and 1930s the Secretary's powers and responsibilities grew. This was partly due to the retirement of George Parkin in 1920. By that time the program was firmly established, and thus there was no longer a need for an “Organizing Secretary.” The Rhodes Trustees continued to maintain their headquarters in London. In 1919 they appointed one of themselves to the position of General Secretary. That person would supervise the management of the endowment funds and make decisions on broad policy issues.7 Increasingly the Oxford Secretary handled daily affairs and corresponded with Aydelotte and the other national secretaries.
The end of the decade also witnessed some important developments. As noted above, the granting of senior status made it possible for many scholars to obtain a B.A., B.Sc., or B.Litt. – but not a D.Phil. – in two years. Nonetheless, many were dragging out their studies to three years. In many cases this was because they did not study hard enough in their first two. To encourage all scholars to work harder, Francis Wylie gradually made the scholarship into a two-year program.8 One could apply for a third year only by demonstrating its necessity. In most cases the extension was granted. This was especially true for students who had completed a B.A. and wanted to go on for an additional degree, or for students pursuing a D.Phil. In the 1930s most scholars remained for a third year, but in later decades most chose to return home after the second.
An event of particular importance occurred in 1929. This was the gala opening of Rhodes House. About two hundred former scholars from around