A Geek in Korea. Daniel Tudor
A SUCCESS STORY
Protestantism has had a shorter, and more successful history on the Korean peninsula. Following the opening up of Korea in the late 19th century, American missionaries like Horace Underwood and Henry Appenzeller began to arrive. They established schools, universities, and hospitals, providing Protestantism with a benevolent, progressive image.
Korean megachurches
Koreans show a tendency towards large group activity, and one result of this is the development of megachurches. Yoido Full Gospel Church in Seoul operates like a franchise, with affiliate churches all over the country. In this way, Yoido claims over a million members; another, the powerful Somang Church, has around 700,000. Unfortunately, the amount of money these churches have can create illegal incentives: family members of Yoido Church founder David Cho Yong-gi have faced trial for financial misdealing.
Yoido Full Gospel Church by night.
Lee Seung-man (Syngman Rhee), the first president of the Republic of Korea, seen here embracing General Douglas MacArthur. The Rhee era was a key factor in the growth of Protestantism in Korea.
Protestants also played a leading role in resisting Japanese colonial rule (1910–1945). Sixteen of the thirty-three signatories of the March 1st Independence Declaration were Protestant, though only two percent of the total population followed the faith at the time.
Following the division of the peninsula, South Korea came to be strongly influenced by the United States. Americanophile Syngman Rhee—the South’s first president—was a Methodist, and almost half of his government was Christian. The US became a model for Korea to emulate, and its religion was no exception in that regard. There were just 800,000 Korean Protestants in 1958, but two million ten years later; there are 11 million now. Catholicism did not grow as rapidly, but it did also increase its presence: they number around three million today.
FERVENCY AND POLITICKING
Christianity in Korea—particularly Protestantism—can polarize opinion. Korean Protestants tend to be fervent and vocal about their religion, with preachers sometimes haranguing passers-by on the street. It is also very common for them to approach foreigners, asking “Do you know Jesus Christ?” When visiting Korea, do not be surprised if complete strangers come up to you and ask you to go to their church.
Furthermore, some churches have a very aggressive political slant (generally right-wing). Prior to the 2011 Seoul mayoral election, one prominent pastor publicly announced that left-of-center candidate Park Won-soon (who eventually won) “belongs to demons and Satan.” Conservative President Lee Myung-bak won election in 2007 partly due to the Protestant bloc vote.
Seoul Mayor Park Won-soon
KOREAN SHAMANISM THOUSANDS OF GODS, THOUSANDS OF YEARS
Shamanism, or musok, is an indigenous set of folk practices based on an understanding that there exists a metaphysical realm of spirits alongside the natural world. Those spirits lie not just in people, but also in animals, trees, mountains, rivers, and rocks.
For around 40,000 years—much longer than the idea of “Korea” itself has existed—mudang have intervened in this spirit world through ritual ceremonies, in order to produce good fortune, drive away evil, or tell the future. Shamanism has long had a feminine image, and so most mudang are women. They dress in elaborate, multi-colored costumes, and sing and dance like dervishes. They convey the words of departed relatives to living family members. And they perform striking feats, such as balancing on knife-blades.
A mudang in trance, as shown in this photo from the late 19th century.
Painting of a shamanic gut from the Joseon Dynasty.
BECOMING A MUDANG
There are two ways to become a mudang. Neither is seen as a matter of choice, but rather of destiny. The first is to become possessed by a particular spirit. In the first stages, the potential mudang suddenly contracts shinbyeong, a “spiritual sickness” which can lead to bizarre and restless behavior. The illness is cured by participating in a naerimgut, a ceremony performed by an older, more experienced mudang, which results in the sufferer accepting the incoming spirit. From then on, the former sufferer toils as an apprentice, under the guidance of the older mudang. This stage may last several years, until the young mudang is ready to lead ceremonies by herself.
The other way is through inheritance. If your mother was a mudang, you could learn the techniques she used, and eventually practice them yourself. This tradition was magnified during the Joseon era (1392–1910). Shamanism was treated as backward and false by the Joseon authorities, and thus mudang were demoted to the lowest of Korean social classes. One consequence of this was that it became difficult for someone from a mudang family to marry a “normal” person, or earn a living in a “normal” way. So they tended to marry each other, and raise their children in the tradition.
The tools of the trade. Musok rituals often involve bukeo (pollack fish), as well as alcohol as an offering. The bag contains animal entrails.
SHAMANISM: AN EXPENSIVE BUSINESS IN TODAY’S KOREA
Now liberated from the shackles of Joseon oppression, the mudang are once again flourishing—even in spite of Korea becoming a modern, industrial society. There are millions of Koreans who will consult with mudang on matters such as business, relationships, and the naming of children. Even wealthy chaebol (conglomerate) owners have turned to them, as have politicians ahead of crucial elections.
Mudang provide varying levels of service. The basic consultation, or jeom, may cost in the tens of dollars, and amount to a simple conversation about the client’s destiny, or what they should do about a particular problem. For those with enough money—or serious enough problems—a gut may be in order. This is a lengthy ceremony of cathartic song and dance, which directly intervenes with the spirits to produce a beneficial outcome. It is not unheard of for such ceremonies to cost US$10,000 or more.
This means that some mudang—particularly the unscrupulous—can become very rich.
A large gut in which an animal sacrifice has been offered. Note the three-pronged trident forks. The trident is a common symbol of musok.
Mountains and Mudang
Mountains are the most spiritually important geographic features of Korean shamanism. Mountains are worshipped individually, and there is even a mountain god, Sanshin. Sanshin is probably the most important among the many countless thousands of gods followed by mudang. He is represented as a robe-clad, bearded mystic figure. Portraits of him may also be found in Buddhist temples.
“DON’T BUY A BLUE CAR WHEN YOU’RE 34”
Probably most Koreans would not say “I believe in shamanism.” But it has been part of their country’s culture for millennia, making for a kind of ingrained, natural belief. There is enough demand to sustain 300,000 mudang and other, lesser fortune-tellers. And their advice is taken seriously. When I interviewed one, she told me: “Don’t buy a blue car. Especially when you are 34.” When I tell friends about this, some of them just laugh—but others give me a very serious look, and implore me never to think about tempting fate.
TRADITIONAL