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Notes
1 1 In this chapter, the reader will see a shift from the use of “fluency” in earlier research to “proficiency” in later research. The two are used synonymously here. In chapters that follow, though, we will report on the work of some researchers, as in Chapter 5, who use “fluency/fluent” to mean that a person speaks easily, clearly, and with few hesitations.
2 How Many Bilinguals Are There?
Bilingualism is widespread and can be found in practically every country of the world, in all classes of society, and in all age groups. It has been estimated that probably more than half of the world’s population is bilingual; that is, it uses two or more languages (or dialects) in everyday life. But this is just an estimation and, unfortunately, we are still a long way away from knowing exactly how many people are indeed bilingual. Are things easier if we try to assess the number of bilinguals country by country? Not really as there are huge gaps in what we know. And when some data does exist, it is far from satisfactory.
In the first part of this chapter, we discuss why it is that bilingualism is so widespread and why, wherever one goes in the world, one meets people who know and use two or more languages (or dialects) in their everyday lives.
The second part discusses why it is so difficult to obtain exact figures on the extent of bilingualism. Some national censuses simply do not have language questions. Others have a few but for very specific reasons which do not have to do with bilingualism. Countries that have appropriate questions do exist but they often focus on specific types of bilinguals and not on all bilinguals.
In the third part, we choose a few of countries and report on the state of bilingualism of their inhabitants. Their national censuses, or large language surveys, give us sufficient data from which estimates of bilingualism based either on language use, language knowledge, or both, can be worked out. These include the United States, Canada, and a number of countries in Europe.
Finally, in the last part, we move up to the level of the world and track down how a percentage of the bi- and multilinguals in the world was estimated by two recognized experts, and the many problems that were encountered when doing so.
The Extent of Bilingualism
It has long been recognized that bilingualism is extremely widespread and that it can be found in practically every country of the world, in all classes of society, and in all age groups. There are many reasons for this. A very straightforward one is that there are some 7,117 languages in the world according to Ethnologue: Languages of the World and they are housed in 195 countries (Eberhard, Simons, and Fennig 2020). Even if not all countries have 36 or so languages (an average based on these numbers), it does mean that countries house many languages and there will be language contact within them. In addition, some countries have many more languages such as 719 in Indonesia,1 461 in India,2 390 in Australia3 and so on. Contact between language groups means learning and using other languages or, at the very least, acquiring a common language of communication and hence often becoming bi- or multilingual.
In addition, some countries have a language policy that recognizes and fosters several languages such as India, Canada, Belgium and Switzerland among others. Children in these countries often learn their group’s language and one or two others. Many countries have only one national language and members of other linguistic groups are expected to become bilingual in their own language and the national language (for example, the Kabyles in Algeria, the Kurds in Turkey, the Finns in Sweden, and so on).
Trade and business are a major cause of language contact and hence bilingualism. For example, Greek was the language of buyers and sellers in the Mediterranean during the third, fourth and fifth centuries BCE and, of course, English has become a major language of trade and business today. It is well known that some business people in countries such as The Netherlands, Sweden, Switzerland and Singapore, among many others, will speak English all day at work and return home to speak their native language.
Another important cause of bilingualism is the movement of peoples. The reasons are many – political, religious, social, economic, educational – and go back to the beginning to time. People have always moved to other regions or countries in search of work and better living conditions. For example, in the United States, Batalova and Alperi (2018) report that the foreign-born share of the population is at its highest level since 1910, with approximately 44 million immigrants representing 13.5% of the overall population. In the United Kingdom, in 2018, people born outside country made up a similar percentage (14%),4 and in Switzerland, in 2019, as many as 25% of the population was made up of foreigners.5 All this leads to substantial bilingualism.
People also travel, within a country or between countries, to be schooled or to go to college in a different language. The United States, Russia, the United Kingdom and many others welcome foreign students for their studies who often stay for several years. Even shorter stays are enough to anchor a new language. The world’s most successful mobility program is the European Erasmus program. Since it began in 1987–1988, it has provided over three million European students with the opportunity to go abroad and study at higher education institutions or train in a company.6
There are many other reasons for the extent of bilingualism one of which is intermarriage. This often results in households being bilingual where at least one spouse has learned the language of the other and uses it at home, and where children often learn different languages. Another reason is simply that many professions require people to know and use two or more languages: language teaching, interpretation and translation, the hospitality, travel and leisure industries, diplomacy, media, research, and so on.
In sum, bi- and multilingualism is extensive, and wherever one goes in the world, one meets people who know and use two or more languages or dialects. Is this reflected in the national statistics of countries that house these people?