The Handbook for the New Art and Science of Teaching. Robert J. Marzano
in this chapter help the teacher do just that.
Element 1: Providing Scales and Rubrics
An effective educator provides a clearly stated learning goal accompanied by a scale or rubric that describes levels of performance relative to the learning goal. Research has shown that setting goals or objectives increases student achievement (Lipsey & Wilson, 1993; Walberg, 1999; Wise & Okey, 1983).
To be successful, students must understand what they are expected to achieve and how to get there. The best vehicle for delivering that knowledge is a proficiency scale. Element 1 underscores the necessity of providing both proficiency scales and rubrics; however, we will focus on proficiency scales here. A scale is more general and describes a progression of knowledge or skills. Rubrics are typically created for a specific project or task and describe details that are applied to the assignment rather than the skill. Figure 1.1 provides an example of a proficiency scale.
Figure 1.1: Sample proficiency scale for English language arts standard.
There are six strategies within this element.
1. Clearly articulating learning goals
2. Creating scales or rubrics for learning goals
3. Implementing routines for using targets and scales
4. Using teacher-created targets and scales
5. Creating student-friendly scales
6. Identifying individual student learning goals
The following sections will explore each strategy to provide you with guidelines to effectively implement this element. Read through each before creating a plan for your classroom. Teachers may use the strategies individually or in combination. Remember, these are not merely activities to be checked off; they are methods of creating a practice that combines your art with the science of providing scales and rubrics. Reflect on your use of each strategy by filling out the “Strategy Reflection Log” on page 331.
Clearly Articulating Learning Goals
Before we set learning goals, we must understand exactly what they are. Learning goals state what students will know or be able to do at the end of the learning period. They are not the activities or assignments; rather, these are tasks that are meant to support students in achieving the learning goals.
Teachers acquire the goals from their standards documents and write them in such a way that creates clarity for both teacher and student. Consider the following formats for learning goals.
Declarative knowledge: Students will understand _______________________________.
Procedural knowledge: Students will be able to _______________________________.
These two formats allow teachers to unpack sometimes complicated standards into simple sentences that clarify the action or knowledge a student is expected to be able to demonstrate at the end of the learning period. For example, “Students will understand how the antebellum period affected the Civil War,” or “Students will be able to design and execute an experiment that demonstrates Newton’s second law of motion.”
Teachers communicate these learning goals for each assignment. In turn, each assignment must directly relate to the learning goal. In this way, both teachers and students understand the purpose of an assignment.
Creating Scales or Rubrics for Learning Goals
Teachers embed the learning goal in a proficiency scale. The learning goal itself is the target for score 3.0. Teachers then articulate a simpler learning goal for score 2.0, and a more complex goal for score 4.0 (see figure 1.2).
Figure 1.2: Proficiency scale template.
Using the template in figure 1.2, follow these four steps to create your own proficiency scale.
1. Identify a target learning goal. This goal will become the score 3.0 content in the scale. For example, “Students will describe complex causal relationships in grade-appropriate passages.”
2. Identify knowledge that is simpler than the target learning goal and a prerequisite to achieving the target learning goal. This content will become the score 2.0 level of the scale. For example, based on the example in step 1, a simpler goal could be, “Students will identify literary clues that signal a cause-effect relationship in a specific grade-appropriate text.” Score 2.0 often includes more than one content statement, as the simpler content might include vocabulary terms as well as several basic facts or processes.
3. Identify knowledge that is more complex than the learning goal. This content will become the score 4.0 level of the scale. Content at this level goes beyond what teachers will directly teach in class and often includes complex comparisons, generalizations, or application of knowledge to real-world problems. Continuing the example, a more complex learning goal could be, “Students will explain the relationship between complex causal relationships in one story and those in other stories.” Some teachers, schools, and districts prefer to simply state, “Students will make inferences and applications beyond what was taught,” rather than explicitly stating a specific level 4.0 learning goal. Either approach is acceptable.
4. Include generic descriptions of other levels. Scores 1.0 and 0.0 are general statements, rather than content specific, and do not change. The same goes for half-point scores, if teachers use them.
Implementing Routines for Using Targets and Scales
Routines provide several benefits to the classroom. In relation to element 1, routines encourage students’ attentiveness to learning targets and proficiency scales; they help students relate their learning back to the targets and scales; and they help teachers focus their lessons on the goals set in targets and scales. How might you develop a routine to include targets and scales? Following are a few examples.
Begin and end every lesson by relating the activity or task back to the learning target and relating the learning target back to the scale. This should involve a brief review of the scale and should not take more than several minutes of class time. Extend this activity by giving students the opportunity at the end of class to explain how they see the lesson relating to the target and the scale.
Post a copy of the scale and learning target in the same place every day so it is accessible to students. Students should instinctually know where to look for a scale and target during every class. For example, teachers can write the learning target for the day on the whiteboard and create cork boards for the various scales students might want to reference during class. Additionally, teachers can make individual copies of scales for students to use during class or at home.
Create a routine that helps relate the lesson to the learning goal. For example, before a lesson, write and strategically place sticky notes around the classroom to remind yourself to relate the content back to the target and scale. Ask students individually or in groups to brainstorm how the lesson relates to the learning goal during a pause in instruction or near the end of class. Teachers can also ask students to give a quick signal to request an explanation whenever they aren’t certain how the lesson relates to the target and scale.
The main benefit of establishing such routines is to reinforce the idea of a learning progression. Teachers can reinforce learning progressions in a number of ways: by asking students to summarize their progress toward a learning target at the end of a week, class period, or unit; by having students relate what they have just learned to their previous understanding or knowledge of the subject; or by asking students to identify where they are on a scale before leaving the classroom. Teachers should consistently engage students in activities that help them understand that they are getting closer to the goal with every lesson.