Understanding Racism. Hephzibah Strmic-Pawl
to Allport’s methodology include the lack of research or testing of any specific approach to explaining prejudice. The methodology used is a collection of studies and commentary, rather than a scientific evaluation of any one proposed explanation, and the numerous sources cited in the book make it virtually impossible to evaluate the rigor of each study that Allport cites. Thus, the methodology is difficult to assess as a factor independent of the sources Allport uses. Allport’s theory, then, relies on his synthesis of previous research rather than any type of primary data collection or analysis.
Theoretical Benefits
The interdisciplinary review of such a wide range of studies and theoretical approaches leads to a nuanced perspective on prejudice. As Allport notes in the beginning of his book, his aim is to provide a framework for future scholars—a theoretical foundation based on a holistic synthesis of the work on prejudice. The table of contents of the book provides a theoretical outline of how to approach the study of prejudice with 31 chapters, ranging from the introduction, “What Is the Problem?” to specific facets, such as “Stereotypes in Our Culture” and “Choice of Scapegoats,” to a chapter toward the end on “Evaluation of Programs.” Throughout the book, there is a carefully balanced view of explaining prejudice as a problem belonging to society and a problem belonging to individuals. Likely, the greatest theoretical benefit is that Allport successfully meets his goal of setting the stage for a theory of prejudice that successive scholars have relied on. As noted social psychologist Thomas Pettigrew remarks, “the book continues to be the definitive theoretical statement of the field.”32
Theoretical Limitations
The limitation of a focus on prejudice is that the analysis does not clearly indicate why some groups are chosen as targets of prejudice and others are not. It also does not explain how some groups are able to progress through a period of targeted prejudice to eventually become accepted, while others are not. The Nature of Prejudice tends to focus on Black communities and Jewish communities (which makes sense, given that the book was published in the 1950s, when anti-Black and anti-Jewish sentiment was high), but there’s no rigorous theoretical explanation as to why these two groups are persistently the targets of prejudice. Likewise, there’s no reason given as to why Irish communities, who had previously been seen as different and had experienced severe discrimination, then came to be accepted by Whites. Prejudice, as a theoretical concept, tends to lack a sophisticated analysis of power that could help explain the structure of hierarchies. Overall, the strength of prejudice as an explanatory perspective is more on the individual, psychological level, while its theoretical limitation is in addressing power differentials, hierarchies, evolution in racial group dynamics, and similar processes.
Additional Contribution: Merton’s Typology
Robert Merton’s typology, which was published around the same time as Allport’s book, is widely referenced for situating the complex relationship between prejudice and discrimination. Merton contends that there is not a direct causal relationship between prejudice and discrimination, in that prejudice always directly results in discrimination. Instead, he offers a typology to explain the multiple ways in which prejudice and discrimination can be related—and therefore the likelihood of when discrimination will occur. Merton proposes four types of prejudice–discrimination linkages: (1) unprejudiced nondiscriminators, (2) unprejudiced discriminators, (3) prejudiced nondiscriminators, and (4) prejudiced discriminators. Unprejudiced nondiscriminators, or all-weather liberals, believe in freedom and equality and seek out likeminded people; they are not ambivalent about social problems but often lack an awareness of them. Unprejudiced discriminators, or fair-weather liberals, tend to discriminate only if they feel it is necessary, particularly if it is in their self-interest. Fair-weather liberals often obey policies against discrimination because they prefer that their actions meet their unprejudiced views. Prejudiced nondiscriminators, or timid bigots, look upon many groups unfavorably and follow stereotypes, but they won’t discriminate if there is law or social pressure against doing so. The fourth type is prejudiced discriminators, or active bigots, who believe in the inferiority of others and their right to act on that prejudice.33 Because this is a typology, many people don’t fall neatly into one of the four groups; nevertheless, the typology provides a useful guide to understand the varied relationship between prejudice and discrimination.
Conclusion
A theory of prejudice is useful for examining how individuals and societies develop and foster negative bias based on race and/or other identities, such as gender, religion, and class. Arguably, at the root of racism are an irrational perception of and a lack of empathy for people of color, both of which the theory of prejudice help explain. The Nature of Prejudice is still widely referenced and considered a foundation for the work on prejudice; in a 25th anniversary edition of the book, Kenneth Clark, the noted psychologist whose work was used in the 1954 Brown v. Board of Education Supreme Court case, noted that “its table of contents establishes the parameters for a scholarly social science approach to the discussion and understanding of this complex human problem.”34 Merton’s typology, too, is still widely referenced and used in an array of sociology textbooks.
Reflect and Discuss
1 What is the difference between prejudgment and prejudice?
2 How are group differences, real or imagined, at the root of prejudice?
3 Describe the relationship between prejudice and discrimination.
Diagram 1.1 Prejudice
Diagram 1.2 Merton’s Typology
Key Terms
Category: “An accessible cluster of associated ideas which as a whole has the property of guiding daily adjustments.”35
Ethnic prejudice: “An antipathy based upon a faulty and inflexible generalization. It may be felt or expressed. It may be directed toward a group or as a whole, or toward an individual because he is a member of that group.”36
Group: “Any cluster of people who can use the term ‘we’ with the same significance.”37
Prejudice: “Prejudgments become prejudices only if they are not reversible when exposed to new knowledge. A prejudice, unlike a simple misconception, is actively resistant to all evidence that would unseat it. We tend to grow emotional when a prejudice is threatened with contradiction. Thus the difference between ordinary prejudgments and prejudice is that one can discuss and rectify a prejudgment without emotional resistance.”38
Projection: “Whenever, and in whatever way, a correct-appraisal of one’s own emotional life fails and gives way to an incorrect judgment of other people.”39
Stereotype: “An exaggerated belief associated with a category. Its function is to justify (rationalize) our conduct in relation to that category.”40
Key People
Gordon Allport (1897–1967): A psychologist who was known for pushing the boundaries of the discipline, Allport developed the three-tiered hierarchy of personality traits and a theory of prejudice. Allport is ranked as number 11 of 100 of the most eminent psychologists of the 20th century by the American Psychological Association.
Robert Merton (1910–2003): Merton was a leading sociologist known for coining a series of foundational concepts, such as “roles,” “status set,” and “self-fulfilling prophecy.” In