Learning in Adulthood. Sharan B. Merriam
revisited depending on student knowledge. The sequence of materials may have to vary for learners, and peer teaching may be helpful to learners.
Researchers conducted an ethnographic study with 420 older adults ranging in age from 58 to 90 over 4 years to understand how they became successful learners regarding information and communication technology (Sayago, Forbes, & Blat, 2013). They observed learners as well as conducting in-depth interviews with 20 participants. Learners were monitored at a “computer clubhouse” located on the University of Dundee and at an adult education center. Successful information and communication technologies learners connected learning to “real life needs” (p. 527), learned collaboratively, shared learning strategies with classmates, and used techniques to aid their memory. Researchers concluded that activities should be related to real-life concerns of learners, social interaction among learners is important, and materials should contain places to have notes.
When designing web-based training for older adults, course designers have several recommendations. First, they encourage instructors to have a highly structured learning environment. Learning objectives should be clearly defined and learners should be “directed to crucial information” (Wolfson, Cavanagh, & Kraiger, 2014, p. 31). Second, using principles from cognitive load theory or cognitive theory of multimedia learning is important. Some of these recommendations include self-paced instruction and removing information that is irrelevant to the learning goal. Third, “customize training programs in terms of feedback and adaptive guidance” (p. 31). This means correcting errors quickly, advising learners what to focus on, and giving feedback on past performance and “future-oriented information” (p. 31). Fourth, “encourage use of metacognitive and cognitive strategies” (p. 31). Techniques such as paraphrasing information or creating their own self-tests on material are two of these strategies. Fifth, have a course design that accommodates sight issues such as having large font sizes and good contrasts between the font and background. Screen-reading software or “eye gaze systems” that helps learners use technology using their eye movements is also a good idea. (p. 31). Last, the instructor should show confidence in the abilities of older learners to learn materials.
In summary, the digital divide is multifaceted. Access to the Internet remains an issue for some individuals, and digital literacy varies among individuals. Interventions for older adults and those with less exposure to technology may be useful in closing the gap.
Informal and Nonformal Learning and Technology
Informal learning is generally any learning that occurs outside a formal context such as a school (Sloep, 2012 as cited in Song & Lee, 2014) and is part of our everyday lives. Technology and informal learning are intertwined. We perform Google searches on myriad topics. We look up YouTube videos to learn how to fly a drone, replace a keyboard on our laptop, or remove that burned popcorn smell out of our microwave oven! Some of us use apps such as DuoLingo or Babbel on our mobile phones to learn another language.
We engage in informal learning when we blog. Learning is inherent in blogging as reflection occurs on one's writing and reflective dialogue can take place when readers comment on bloggers' ideas (Deng & Yuen, 2011 as cited in Harju, Pehkonen, & Niemi, 2016). These interactive discussions can change individuals' thinking about an issue (Webb, 2013 as cited in Harju et al., 2016). Blogging can be part of self-directed learning (SDL). For example, a woman who was learning to cook tried new recipes and reported on their results on her blog. The social nature of the blog provides a forum for bloggers to write and receive comments. In a study that discussed blogging as a form of lifelong learning, researchers found that bloggers provided “teaching and guidance” to readers (Harju et al., 2016, p. 10) and believed they were helping others and “bringing new perspectives to public discussions” (p. 11). They shared their expertise and wanted to have accurate information on their blogs. Bloggers liked being “part of a digital media culture” (p. 12). Bloggers wrote about topics of interest to them and responded to readers' interests. In short, blogging is an area of self-expression where bloggers can post, get attention from others, and be part of a community that “promotes… lifelong learning activities, people's well-being and mental health” (p. 14).
Individuals can also learn about themselves via technology. Scholars investigated how “social media, particularly social networking sites, serve as informal learning environments for lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, questioning, and otherwise-identified (LGBTQ) individuals” (Fox & Ralston, 2016, p. 635). In traditional learning, participants sought out information about “identity labels and meaning” (p. 638) to understand their LGBTQ identity. They could learn this information in an anonymous setting for those who were not yet ready to come out offline. Second, they engaged in social learning through technology such as YouTube as they could follow LGBTQ celebrities and see role models coming out, which helped them in their coming out process. Study participants reported seeing how LGBTQ individuals faced discrimination in their daily lives through social media posts. In addition, they engaged in experiential learning before coming out to “test the waters” by posting LGBTQ-related information on their social media outlets to see what reaction they'd receive. Participants also used online dating sites to check out what it was like to seek others of the same sex, for example. Last, when individuals became more comfortable with their LGBTQ identity, some of them educated others. For example, a woman who identified as asexual educated others about her identity.
Nonformal learning can occur in a variety of organizational settings such as workplaces, museums, and institutions and can also include “instructor-led experiences… outside the formal schooling context” (Ross-Gordon, Rose, & Kasworm, 2017, p. 34). For example, virtual team training for members of the police force was compared to standard in-person training (Bertram, Moskaliuk, & Cress, 2015). Those in the standard group had higher knowledge scores and were more satisfied with their training than those in the virtual reality group. However, “in the more complex scenario of the reality task, the virtual training group outperformed the [standard and control] groups” (p. 291). The transfer of learning was effective for both the standard and virtual groups. In another study concerning virtual training for coal miners, participants found the training very useful and its positive effects were felt several months after the training occurred (Grabowski & Jankowski, 2015). Virtual reality technology has also helped veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder perform better during the job-interview process (Smith et al., 2015).
Another technology that is used for workplace learning are mobile phones. Scholars have investigated “how mobile Web 2.0 technologies support SDL and how learner's self-directedness is fostered in [the workplace] context” (Gu, 2016, p. 308). Researchers interviewed five workers including a “technical sales representative, computer engineer, accountant, human resource specialist and magazine editor” in China (p. 308). Participants used a work app called MobLearn@Work for work-related SDL. The four functions of the app included “microblogging, RSS, podcasting, and mobile web-searching” (p. 309). Participants used these functions to “obtain industry information, problem solving, obtain general information, keep up with the industry trend, discover new ideas” and “language learning” (p. 314). They stated that the app “enhanced their responsibility and initiative toward learning” (p. 315).
Not only have researchers examined the use of mobile phones to promote learning in the workplace, but researchers have looked at how mobile phones are used to promote lifelong learning among rural women in Southern India (Balasubramanian, Thamizoli, Abdurrahman, & Kanwar, 2010). A federation of self-help groups, called VIDIVELLI, selected 320 women and gave them the opportunity to learn how to raise goats. Women received training on the mobile phones consisting of three to five voicemails or audio messages on topics such as “buying goats, feed management, disease and health management, and marketing management” (p. 194). Women found that delivering information via the mobile phone was more convenient than face-to-face classes. They used the mobile phone to “discuss and ascertain the validity of the lessons and information passed through the audio and voicemail messages” (p. 204) and they attended monthly self-help group meetings to clarify and discuss information they receive via the mobile phone. Some women reported feeling empowered as a result of the program. They are seen as having “cognitive social capital” because they know how to use mobile