Child Development From Infancy to Adolescence. Laura E. Levine
Impact of Biology and Culture on Child Development Theory and Research
>> LQ 2.3 What role do neuropsychology, genetics, and culture play in the study of child development?
We have described many of the major theories that drive research on children’s development. In this section, we describe major factors that are not theories, but still play a very large role in the type of research carried out in the field of child development. All aspects of development interact with our basic biology, including our brain and our genes. We first describe the impact that new technological advances have had on our understanding of the role of biology in development. The second factor is the role that culture plays in determining the goals and practices that bring about specific outcomes for children around the world.
Neuropsychology and Behavioral Genetics
Neuropsychology, the study of the interaction of the brain and behavior, and behavioral genetics, the study of the interaction of genes and behavior, are on the cutting edge of research in the field of child development. Using new technology, researchers are able to study the structure and functioning of our brains as they never have before, and whole genome sequencing can be used to identify specific genes and understand their effects. Using these new capabilities scientists have produced an avalanche of new research that connects the brain and specific genes with different aspects of children’s development.
Neuropsychology: The study of the interaction of the brain and behavior.
Behavioral genetics: Research to determine the degree of genetic basis for a behavior, trait, or ability.
As we’ve discussed, biology has an impact on behavior, but the environment also affects our biological functioning. The brain’s development, including development of connections between nerve cells, the coating of the nervous system, and the neurochemistry of the brain, is shaped in part by what a person does. For example, when you intensely study a foreign language, gray matter increases in particular parts of the brain (Li, Legault, & Litcofsky, 2014). Likewise, environmental events also affect the expression of genes. For example, research has shown that when children experience child abuse, the expression of certain genes can be changed in ways that may account for the higher reactivity of these individuals to stress later in their lives (Essex et al., 2013; Lester et al., 2011). You will learn much more about the role of genes in child development in Chapter 3, and about the brain and how it develops in the chapters on physical development at each stage of development.
Developmental Theory in a Cultural Context
Although some of the theories we have described take cultural differences into account, all were developed by European or American theorists and most are based on research with Western, middle-class families (Kärtner, 2015). As we said in Chapter 1, if we assume all societies must conform to Western values, we forget that different ideas and behaviors may be more adaptive for children growing up in different contexts and environments. To understand the diversity of development, we must examine the indigenous theories, or ethnotheories, of child development that guide the way children are raised in a variety of cultures. In Chapter 1, you were given an example of how cultural values affect the specific parenting practice of feeding an infant. In this chapter, we focus on how cultural values shape theories of child development.
T/F #6
A good theory should be universal, applying to all children in all situations. False
We saw that Erikson’s theory focused on the development of autonomy and self-determination of the individual. However, developmental theory in some cultures focuses more on the integration of the individual into the social group. For example, Nsamenang and Lo-oh (2010) explain that in sub-Saharan Africa, the overarching theory of development “positions the child not in his or her sovereignty but as socially integrated in a human community” (p. 386). This means that children are seen primarily as participants in their cultural communities rather than as autonomous individuals. To illustrate this cultural difference, compare Erikson’s stages described earlier in this chapter to the stages of development described by Nsamenang (2015) for African culture as shown in Table 2.2.
Table 2.2
Erikson’s theory focuses on the development of the individual and Nsamenang’s theory focuses on social connection throughout development. How are these cultural perspectives different, and how are they similar?
Source: Erikson (1963); Nsamenang & Tchombe (2011).
Even within Western cultures, parental goals can differ. In a study of seven Western countries, parents from all the countries included “sociable,” “loving,” “active,” and “strong-willed” in their description of their child. However, U.S. parents also included “intelligent” and “independent,” while Italian parents were more likely to describe their child as “even-tempered” and “simpatico,” indicating greater social and emotional competence (Harkness, Johnston Mavridis, Ji Liu, & Super, 2015). For these reasons, it is important to remember that theories are shaped by the place in historical time and the culture in which they exist. You will continue to learn more about these cultural comparisons throughout the book.
Check Your Understanding
Knowledge Questions
1 How has new technology changed research in the fields of neuropsychology and behavioral genetics?
2 How do children’s life experiences affect the development of their brain?
3 How do a culture’s values shape the way people conceptualize the stages children go through?
Critical Thinking
Children’s development is affected by both their biology and the larger cultural context in which they live. How would you connect these two factors with Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems?
Comparison of Developmental Theories
When we began this section on developmental theories, we asked you to keep in mind these important questions:
1 How does the theory describe development? Does change occur quantitatively, in small steps, or qualitatively, in distinct stages?
2 What drives development? Is it the product of internal processes such as biological and cognitive growth, or environmental influences, or a combination of these factors?
You can now use Table 2.3 to review the theories presented in this chapter and to see whether your answers to these questions about them were correct. In addition, the table provides a very brief statement of some major contributions each theory has made to the study of child development and some of the recent applications of each theory.
Table 2.3
As you learn about developmental theories, you might be tempted to say “I agree” or “I don’t agree” with any particular theory, but your opinions should ultimately depend on reasoned, testable evidence that supports or refutes each one. In the next section, we examine how psychologists carry out research that advances our theoretical understanding of human development.
Research Methods
>> LQ 2.4 How is research on child development conducted?
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