An Advanced English Grammar with Exercises. George Lyman Kittredge
48. I. Noun (or Substantive) Clauses.
{Success | That we should succeed in this plan} is improbable.
The thought in these two sentences is the same, but in the second it is more fully expressed. In the first sentence, the subject is the noun success; in the second, the subject is the noun clause, that we should succeed in this plan. This clause is introduced by the conjunction that; the simple subject of the clause is the pronoun we, and the simple predicate is the verb-phrase should succeed. The first sentence is simple; the second is complex.
Substantive clauses are often introduced by the conjunction that.
49. II. Adjective Clauses. The following sentences illustrate the use of (1) an adjective, (2) an adjective phrase, (3) an adjective clause, as a modifier of the subject noun.
{An honorable man | A man of honor | A man who values his honor} will not lie.
{A seasonable word | A word in season | A word that is spoken at the right moment} may save a soul.
{My native land | The land of my birth | The land where I was born} lies far across the sea.
The first two sentences in each group are simple, the third is complex.
50. III. Adverbial Clauses. The following sentences illustrate the use of (1) an adverb, (2) an adverbial phrase, (3) an adverbial clause, as a modifier of the predicate verb (or verb-phrase).
The lightning struck {here. | on this spot. | where we stand.}
Mr. Andrews lives {near. | in this neighborhood. | where you see that elm.}
The game began {punctually. | on the stroke of one. | when the clock struck.}
The banker will make the loan {conditionally. | on one condition. | if you endorse my note.}
The first two sentences in each group are simple, the third is complex.
51. Adjective clauses may be introduced (1) by the pronouns who, which, and that, or (2) by adverbs like where, whence, whither, when.
Adverbial clauses may be introduced (1) by the adverbs where, whither, whence, when, while, before, after, until, how, as, or (2) by the conjunctions because, though, although, if, that (in order that, so that), lest, etc.
Note. The use of phrases and clauses as parts of speech increases enormously the richness and power of language. Though English has a huge stock of words, it cannot provide a separate noun or adjective or adverb for every idea. By grouping words, however, in phrases and clauses we, in effect, make a great variety of new nouns, adjectives, and adverbs, each precisely fitted to the needs of the moment in the expression of thought.
SUMMARY OF DEFINITIONS
The Sentence
1. Language is thought expressed in words.
2. To express thought words are combined into sentences.
3. A sentence is a group of words which expresses a complete thought.
4. Sentences may be declarative, interrogative, imperative, or exclamatory.
(1) A declarative sentence declares or asserts something as a fact.
(2) An interrogative sentence asks a question.
(3) An imperative sentence expresses a command or a request.
(4) An exclamatory sentence expresses surprise, grief, or some other emotion in the form of an exclamation or cry.
A declarative, an interrogative, or an imperative sentence may also be exclamatory.
Subject and Predicate
5. Every sentence consists of a subject and a predicate.
The subject of a sentence designates the person, place, or thing that is spoken of; the predicate is that which is said of the subject.
6. The simple subject of a sentence is a noun or pronoun.
The simple predicate of a sentence is a verb or verb-phrase.
7. The simple subject, with such words as explain or complete its meaning, forms the complete subject.
The simple predicate, with such words as explain or complete its meaning, forms the complete predicate.
8. A compound subject or predicate consists of two or more simple subjects or predicates, joined, when necessary, by conjunctions.
Either the subject or the predicate, or both, may be compound.
The Parts of Speech
9. In accordance with their use in the sentence, words are divided into eight classes called parts of speech—namely, nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections.
(1) A noun is the name of a person, place, or thing.
(2) A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun. It designates a person, place, or thing without naming it.
Nouns and pronouns are called substantives.
The substantive to which a pronoun refers is called its antecedent.
(3) An adjective is a word which describes or limits a substantive.
This it usually does by indicating some quality.
An adjective is said to belong to the substantive which it describes or limits.
An adjective which describes is called a descriptive adjective; one which points out or designates is called a definitive adjective.
(4) A verb is a word which can assert something (usually an action) concerning a person, place, or thing.
Some verbs express state or condition rather than action.
A group of words that is used as a verb is called a verb-phrase.
Certain verbs, when used to make verb-phrases, are called auxiliary (that is, “aiding”) verbs, because they help other verbs to express action or state of some particular kind.
Is (in its various forms) and several other verbs may be used to frame sentences in which some word or words in the predicate describe or define the subject. In such sentences, is and other verbs that are used for the same purpose are called copulative (that is, “joining”) verbs.
(5) An adverb is a word which modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.
A word or group of words that changes or modifies the meaning of another word is called a modifier.
Adjectives and adverbs are both modifiers.
(6) A preposition is a word placed before a substantive to show its relation to some other word in the sentence.
The substantive which follows a preposition is called its object.
(7) A conjunction connects words or groups of words.
(8) An interjection is a cry or other exclamatory sound expressing surprise, anger, pleasure,