An Advanced English Grammar with Exercises. George Lyman Kittredge
Other examples are:
aboard,
before,
beyond,
down,
inside,
underneath.
Miscellaneous examples of variation are the following:—
| Noun. | The calm lasted for three days. |
|---|---|
| Adjective. | Calm words show quiet minds. |
| Verb. | Calm your angry friend. |
Other examples are:
iron,
stone,
paper,
sugar,
salt,
bark,
quiet,
black,
light,
head,
wet,
round,
square,
winter,
spring.
| Noun. | Wrong seldom prospers. |
|---|---|
| Adjective. | You have taken the wrong road. |
| Adverb. | Edward often spells words wrong. |
| Verb. | You wrong me by your suspicions. |
| Noun. | The outside of the castle is gloomy. |
| Adjective. | We have an outside stateroom. |
| Adverb. | The messenger is waiting outside. |
| Preposition. | I shall ride outside the coach. |
| Adjective. | That boat is a sloop. |
| Pronoun. | That is my uncle. |
| Conjunction. | You said that you would help me. |
| Adjective. | Neither road leads to Utica. |
| Pronoun. | Neither of us arrived in time. |
| Conjunction. | Neither Tom nor I was late. |
| Preposition. | I am waiting for the train. |
| Conjunction. | You have plenty of time, for the train is late. |
| Interjection. | Hurrah! the battle is won. |
| Noun. | I heard a loud hurrah. |
| Verb. | The enemy flees. Our men hurrah. |
INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES
26. Two classes of verb-forms illustrate in a striking way the fact that the same word may belong to different parts of speech; for they really belong to two different parts of speech at one and the same time. These are the infinitive (which is both verb and noun) and the participle (which is both verb and adjective).
27. Examples of the infinitive may be seen in the following sentences:
To struggle was useless.
To escape is impossible.
To exercise regularly preserves the health.
To struggle is clearly a noun, for (1) it is the subject of the sentence, and (2) the noun effort or exertion might be put in the place of to struggle. Similarly, the noun escape might be substituted for to escape; and, in the third sentence, regular exercise (a noun modified by an adjective) might be substituted for to exercise regularly.
But these three forms (to struggle, to escape, and to exercise) are also verbs, for they express action, and one of them (to exercise) is modified by an adverb (regularly). Such forms, therefore, are noun-forms of the verb. They are classed with verbs, and are called infinitives.
28. The infinitive is a verb-form which partakes of the nature of a noun. It is commonly preceded by the preposition to, which is called the sign of the infinitive.
29. The infinitive without to is used in a great variety of verb-phrases.
I shall go.
John will win.
Mary may recite.
Jack can swim.
Such phrases will be studied in connection with the inflection of verbs.
Note. That go, win, recite, and swim are infinitives may be seen by comparing the following sentences:—“I intend to go,” “John is sure to win,” “Mary is permitted to recite,” “Jack is able to swim.”
30. The following sentence contains two participles:—
Shattered and slowly sinking, the frigate drifted out to sea.
In this sentence, we recognize shattered as a form of the verb shatter, and sinking as a form of the verb sink. They both express action, and sinking is modified by the adverb slowly. But shattered and sinking have also the nature of adjectives, for they are used to describe the noun frigate. Such words, then, are adjective forms of the verb. They are classed as verbs, and are called participles, because they share (or participate in) the nature of adjectives.
31. The participle is a verb-form which has no subject, but which partakes of the nature of an adjective and expresses action or state in such a way as to describe or limit a substantive.
A participle is said to belong to the substantive which it describes or limits.
32. The chief classes of participles are present participles and past participles, so called from the time which they denote.
All present participles end in ing. Past participles have several different endings, which will be studied in connection with the inflection of verbs (§ 334).
33. Participles are used in a variety of verb-phrases.
Tom is coming.
Our boat was wrecked.
I have sent the money.
He has brought me a letter.
Your book is found.
They have sold their horses.
You have broken your watch.
The ship had struck on the reef.
Such phrases will be studied in connection with the inflection of verbs.
Note. The double nature of the infinitive (as both verb and noun) and the participle (as both verb and adjective) almost justifies one in classifying each as a distinct part of speech (so as to make ten parts of speech instead of eight). But it is more convenient to include them under the head of verbs, in accordance with the usual practice.
SIMPLE AND COMPLETE SUBJECT AND PREDICATE