An Advanced English Grammar with Exercises. George Lyman Kittredge
be seen in other members of the family—such as Greek or Latin. The Latin word homo, “man,” for example, has eight different inflectional forms—homo, “a man”; hominis, “of a man”; homini, “to a man,” and so on. Thus, in Latin, the grammatical construction of a word is, in general, shown by that particular inflectional ending (or termination) which it has in any particular sentence. In the Anglo-Saxon period,2 English was likewise well furnished with such inflectional endings, though not so abundantly as Latin. Many of these, however, had disappeared by Chaucer’s time (1340–1400), and still others have since been lost, so that modern English is one of the least inflected of languages. Such losses are not to be lamented. By due attention to the order of words, and by using of, to, for, from, in, and the like, we can express all the relations denoted by the ancient inflections. The gain in simplicity is enormous.
II. Grammar and Usage
Since language is the expression of thought, the rules of grammar agree, in the main, with the laws of thought. In other words, grammar is usually logical—that is, its rules accord, in general, with the principles of logic, which is the science of exact reasoning.
The rules of grammar, however, do not derive their authority from logic, but from good usage—that is, from the customs or habits followed by educated speakers and writers. These customs, of course, differ among different nations, and every language has therefore its own stock of peculiar constructions or turns of expression. Such peculiarities are called idioms.
Thus, in English we say, “It is I”; but in French the idiom is “C’est moi,” which corresponds to “It is me.” Many careless speakers of English follow the French idiom in this particular, but their practice has not yet come to be the accepted usage. Hence, though “C’est moi” is correct in French, we must still regard “It is me” as ungrammatical in English. It would, however, become correct if it should ever be adopted by the great majority of educated persons.
Grammar does not enact laws for the conduct of speech. Its business is to ascertain and set forth those customs of language which have the sanction of good usage. If good usage changes, the rules of grammar must change. If two forms or constructions are in good use, the grammarian must admit them both. Occasionally, also, there is room for difference of opinion. These facts, however, do not lessen the authority of grammar in the case of any cultivated language. For in such a language usage is so well settled in almost every particular as to enable the grammarian to say positively what is right and what is wrong. Even in matters of divided usage, it is seldom difficult to determine which of two forms or constructions is preferred by careful writers.
Every language has two standards of usage—the colloquial and the literary. By “colloquial language,” we mean the language of conversation; by “literary language,” that employed in literary composition. Everyday colloquial English admits many words, forms, phrases, and constructions that would be out of place in a dignified essay. On the other hand, it is an error in taste to be always “talking like a book.” Unpractised speakers and writers should, however, be conservative. They should avoid, even in informal talk, any word or expression that is of doubtful propriety. Only those who know what they are about, can venture to take liberties. It is quite possible to be correct without being stilted or affected.3
Every living language is constantly changing. Words, forms, and constructions become obsolete (that is, go out of use) and others take their places. Consequently, one often notes in the older English classics, methods of expression which, though formerly correct, are ungrammatical now. Here a twofold caution is necessary. On the one hand, we must not criticise Shakspere or Chaucer for using the English of his own time; but, on the other hand, we must not try to defend our own errors by appealing to ancient usage.
Examples of constructions once in good use, but no longer admissible, are: “the best of the two” (for “the better of the two”); “the most unkindest cut of all”; “There’s two or three of us” (for there are); “I have forgot the map” (for forgotten); “Every one of these letters are in my name” (for is); “I think it be” (for is).
The language of poetry admits many old words, forms, and constructions that are no longer used in ordinary prose. These are called archaisms (that is, ancient expressions). Among the commonest archaisms are thou, ye, hath, thinkest, doth. Such forms are also common in prose, in what is known as the solemn style, which is modelled, in great part, on the language of the Bible.4
In general, it should be remembered that the style which one uses should be appropriate—that is, it should fit the occasion. A short story and a scientific exposition will differ in style; a familiar letter will naturally shun the formalities of business or legal correspondence. Good style is not a necessary result of grammatical correctness, but without such correctness it is, of course, impossible.
SUMMARY OF GENERAL PRINCIPLES
1. Language is the expression of thought by means of spoken or written words.
2. Words are the signs of ideas.
Spoken words are signs made with the vocal organs; written words are signs made with the pen to represent the spoken words.
The meanings of these signs are settled by custom or tradition in each language.
3. Most words are the signs of definite ideas: as—Charles, captain, cat, strike, dive, climb, triangular, careless.
Other words, of less definite meaning, serve to connect the more definite words and to show their relations to each other in connected speech.
4. In the expression of thought, words are combined into groups called phrases, clauses, and sentences.
5. The relation in which a word stands to other words in the sentence is called its construction.
The construction of English words is shown in three ways: (1) by their form; (2) by their order; (3) by the use of other words like to, from, is, etc.
6. Inflection is a change in the form of a word indicating some change in its meaning: as—boy, boy’s; man, men; drink, drank.
7. Grammar is the science which treats of the forms and the constructions of words.
Syntax is that department of grammar which treats of the constructions of words.
8. The rules of grammar derive their authority from good usage—that is, from the customs or habits followed by educated speakers and writers.
ENGLISH GRAMMAR
PART ONE
THE PARTS OF SPEECH IN THE SENTENCE
Summary. The Sentence: Subject and Predicate; Kinds of Sentences.—Use of words in the Sentence: the Eight Parts of Speech; Infinitives and Participles.—Comparative Importance of the Parts of Speech in the Sentence: the Subject Noun (or Simple Subject); the Predicate Verb (or Simple Predicate); Compound Subject and Predicate.—Substitutes for the Parts of Speech: Phrases; Clauses; Compound and Complex Sentences.
THE SENTENCE
1. A sentence is a group of words which expresses a complete thought.