An Elementary Study of Chemistry. William Edwards Henderson
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13. Assuming the cost of potassium chlorate and mercuric oxide to be respectively $0.50 and $1.50 per kilogram, calculate the cost of materials necessary for the preparation of 50 l. of oxygen from each of the above compounds.
14. 100 g. of potassium chlorate and 25 g. of manganese dioxide were heated in the preparation of oxygen. What products were left in the flask, and how much of each was present?
CHAPTER III
HYDROGEN
Historical. The element hydrogen was first clearly recognized as a distinct substance by the English investigator Cavendish, who in 1766 obtained it in a pure state, and showed it to be different from the other inflammable airs or gases which had long been known. Lavoisier gave it the name hydrogen, signifying water former, since it had been found to be a constituent of water.
Occurrence. In the free state hydrogen is found in the atmosphere, but only in traces. In the combined state it is widely distributed, being a constituent of water as well as of all living organisms, and the products derived from them, such as starch and sugar. About 10% of the human body is hydrogen. Combined with carbon, it forms the substances which constitute petroleum and natural gas.
It is an interesting fact that while hydrogen in the free state occurs only in traces on the earth, it occurs in enormous quantities in the gaseous matter surrounding the sun and certain other stars.
Preparation from water. Hydrogen can be prepared from water by several methods, the most important of which are the following.
1. By the electric current. As has been indicated in the preparation of oxygen, water is easily separated into its constituents, hydrogen and oxygen, by passing an electric current through it under certain conditions.
2. By the action of certain metals. When brought into contact with certain metals under appropriate conditions, water gives up a portion or the whole of its hydrogen, its place being taken by the metal. In the case of a few of the metals this change occurs at ordinary temperatures. Thus, if a bit of sodium is thrown on water, an action is seen to take place at once, sufficient heat being generated to melt the sodium, which runs about on the surface of the water. The change which takes place consists in the displacement of one half of the hydrogen of the water by the sodium, and may be represented as follows:
_ _ _ _
| hydrogen | | sodium |
sodium + | hydrogen |(water) = | hydrogen |(sodium hydroxide) + hydrogen
|_oxygen _| |_oxygen _|
The sodium hydroxide formed is a white solid which remains dissolved in the undecomposed water, and may be obtained by evaporating the solution to dryness. The hydrogen is evolved as a gas and may be collected by suitable apparatus.
Other metals, such as magnesium and iron, decompose water rapidly, but only at higher temperatures. When steam is passed over hot iron, for example, the iron combines with the oxygen of the steam, thus displacing the hydrogen. Experiments show that the change may be represented as follows:
_ _
| hydrogen | _ _ _ _
iron + | hydrogen |(water) = | iron |(iron oxide) + | hydrogen |
|_oxygen _| |_oxygen _| |_hydrogen_|
The iron oxide formed is a reddish-black compound, identical with that obtained by the combustion of iron in oxygen.
Directions for preparing hydrogen by the action of steam on iron. The apparatus used in the preparation of hydrogen from iron and steam is shown in Fig. 9. A porcelain or iron tube B, about 50 cm. in length and 2 cm. or 3 cm. in diameter, is partially filled with fine iron wire or tacks and connected as shown in the figure. The tube B is heated, slowly at first, until the iron is red-hot. Steam is then conducted through the tube by boiling the water in the flask A. The hot iron combines with the oxygen in the steam, setting free the hydrogen, which is collected over water. The gas which first passes over is mixed with the air previously contained in the flask and tube, and is allowed to escape, since a mixture of hydrogen with oxygen or air explodes violently when brought in contact with a flame. It is evident that the flask A must be disconnected from the tube before the heat is withdrawn.
That the gas obtained is different from air and oxygen may be shown by holding a bottle of it mouth downward and bringing a lighted splint into it. The hydrogen is ignited and burns with an almost colorless flame.
Preparation from acids (usual laboratory method). While hydrogen can be prepared from water, either by the action of the electric current or by the action of certain metals, these methods are not economical and are therefore but little used. In the laboratory hydrogen is generally prepared from compounds known as acids, all of which contain hydrogen. When acids are brought in contact with certain metals, the metals dissolve and set free the hydrogen of the acid. Although this reaction is a quite general one, it has been found most convenient in preparing hydrogen by this method to use either zinc or iron as the metal and either hydrochloric or sulphuric acid as the acid. Hydrochloric acid is a compound consisting of 2.77% hydrogen and 97.23% chlorine, while sulphuric acid consists of 2.05% hydrogen, 32.70% sulphur, and 65.25% oxygen.
The changes which take place in the preparation of hydrogen from zinc and sulphuric acid (diluted with water) may be represented as follows:
_ _ _ _
| hydrogen |(sulphuric | zinc |(zinc
zinc + | sulphur | acid) = | sulphur | sulphate) + hydrogen
|_oxygen _| |_oxygen _|
In other words, the zinc has taken the place of the hydrogen in sulphuric acid. The resulting compound contains zinc, sulphur, and oxygen, and is known as zinc sulphate. This remains dissolved in the water present in the acid. It may be obtained in the form of a white solid by evaporating the liquid left after the metal has passed into solution.
When zinc and hydrochloric acid are used the following changes take place:
_ _ _ _
| hydrogen |(hydrochloric | zinc |(zinc
zinc + |_chlorine_| acid) = |_chlorine_| chloride) + hydrogen
When iron is used the changes which take place are exactly similar to those just given for zinc.
Directions for preparing hydrogen from acids. The preparation of hydrogen from acids is carried out in the laboratory as follows: The metal is placed in a flask or wide-mouthed bottle A (Fig. 10) and the acid is added slowly through the funnel tube B. The metal dissolves in the acid, while the hydrogen which is liberated escapes through the exit tube C and is collected over water. It is evident that the hydrogen which passes over first is mixed with the air from the bottle A. Hence care must be taken not to bring a flame near the exit tube, since, as has been stated previously, such a mixture explodes with great violence when brought in contact with a flame.
Precautions. Both sulphuric acid and zinc, if impure, are likely to contain small amounts of arsenic. Such materials should not be used in preparing hydrogen, since the arsenic present combines with a portion of the hydrogen to form a very poisonous gas known as arsine. On the other hand, chemically pure sulphuric acid, i.e. sulphuric acid that is entirely free from impurities, will not act