The Major Operations of the Navies in the War of American Independence. A. T. Mahan

The Major Operations of the Navies in the War of American Independence - A. T. Mahan


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      General Results of the Campaign 56

      Part played by the British Navy. Analogous to that in Spain, 1808–1812, and in many other instances 57

      CHAPTER IV

      WAR BEGINS BETWEEN FRANCE AND GREAT BRITAIN. BRITISH EVACUATE PHILADELPHIA. NAVAL OPERATIONS OF D'ESTAING AND HOWE ABOUT NEW YORK, NARRAGANSETT BAY, AND BOSTON. COMPLETE SUCCESS OF LORD HOWE. AMERICAN DISAPPOINTMENT IN D'ESTAING. LORD HOWE RETURNS TO ENGLAND

       1778

      France recognizes the Independence of the United States, and makes with them a defensive Alliance 58

      A French Fleet sails for America under Comte d'Estaing 59

      Unprepared condition of the British Navy 59

      Admiral Byron sails with a Reinforcement for America 59

      Ill effect of Naval Unreadiness upon British Commerce; and especially on the West Indies 60

      Admiral Keppel puts to Sea with the British Channel Fleet 61

      First Guns of the War with France 62

      Extreme Length of Byron's Passage 62

      He turns back to Halifax 62

      D'Estaing's slowness allows Howe to escape from Delaware Bay. Howe's Celerity 62

      Evacuation of Philadelphia by British Army, and its precipitate Retreat to New York 63

      Escape of both Army and Fleet due to d'Estaing's Delays 63

      Rapid Action of Lord Howe 64

      D'Estaing Arrives off New York 64

      Howe's elaborate Dispositions for the Defence of New York Bay 65

      Statement of British and French Naval Force 66

      D'Estaing decides not to attempt Passage of the Bar, and puts to Sea 67

      Anchors off Narragansett Bay 69

      Forces the Entrance to Newport and Anchors inside the Bay 70

      The British garrison besieged by superior American and French forces 70

      Howe appears with his Fleet and anchors off the entrance, at Point Judith 71

      Sustained Rapidity of his action at New York 71

      D'Estaing Withdraws from Siege of Newport and puts to Sea 73

      Manœuvres of the two Opponents 74

      D'Estaing quits the Field, and both Fleets are scattered by a heavy Gale 75

      Howe returns to New York and collects his Fleet 76

      D'Estaing calls oft Newport; but abandons the Siege finally, taking his Fleet to Boston 77

      Critical Condition of British garrison in Newport. D'Estaing's withdrawal compels Americans to raise the siege 77

      Howe follows d'Estaing to Boston 77

      Discussion of the Conduct of the opposing Admirals 78

      Howe gives up his Command and returns to England 80

      CHAPTER V

      THE NAVAL WAR IN EUROPE. THE BATTLE OF USHANT

       1778

      Admirals Keppel and D'Orvilliers put to Sea from Portsmouth and Brest 82

      Instructions given to the French Admiral 83

      Preliminary Manœuvres after the two Fleets had sighted one another 83

      The Battle of Ushant 84

      A Drawn Battle. The respective Losses 91

      The Significance of the Battle in the fighting Development of the British Navy 93

      The "Order of Battle" 93

      The Disputes and Courts Martial in Great Britain arising from the Battle of Ushant 94

      Keppel Resigns his Command 97

      CHAPTER VI

      OPERATIONS IN THE WEST INDIES, 1778–1779. THE BRITISH INVASION OF GEORGIA AND SOUTH CAROLINA

      Influence of Seasonal Conditions upon Naval Operations in America 98

      Commercial Importance of the West Indies 98

      The French seize Dominica 99

      D'Estaing Sails with his Fleet from Boston for Martinique 100

      A British Squadron under Hotham sails the same day for Barbados, with Five Thousand Troops 100

      Admiral Barrington's Seizure of Santa Lucia 101

      D'Estaing sails to Recapture it 102

      Rapidity and Skill shown in Barrington's Movements and Dispositions 102

      D'Estaing's attacks Foiled, both on Sea and on Shore 103

      He Abandons the attempt and Returns to Martinique 104

      Importance of Santa Lucia in Subsequent Operations 104

      Byron Reaches Barbados, and takes over Command from Barrington 105

      D'Estaing Captures the British Island Grenada 105

      Byron goes to its Relief 106

      The Action between the two Fleets, of Byron and d'Estaing, July 6, 1779 106

      Criticism of the two Commanders-in-Chief 110

      D'Estaing returns to Grenada, which remains French 112

      Byron returns to England. British North American Station assigned to Admiral Arbuthnot, Leeward Islands to Rodney 113

      British Operations in Georgia and South Carolina. Capture of Savannah 113

      Fatal Strategic Error in these Operations 114

      D'Estaing's attempt to Retake Savannah Foiled 115

      His appearance on the coast, however, causes the British to abandon Narragansett Bay 115

      D'Estaing succeeded by de Guichen in North America. Rodney also arrives 115

      CHAPTER VII

      THE NAVAL WAR IN EUROPEAN WATERS, 1779. ALLIED FLEETS INVADE THE ENGLISH CHANNEL. RODNEY DESTROYS TWO SPANISH SQUADRONS AND RELIEVES GIBRALTAR

      Spain declares War against Great Britain 116

      Delays in Junction of French and Spanish Fleets 116

      They enter the Channel. Alarm in England 117

      Plans of the French Government 118

      Their Change and Failure. The Allied Fleets return to Brest 119

      Criticism of the British Ministry 120

      Divergent views of France and Spain 120

      Prominence given to Gibraltar, and the resulting Effect upon the general War 121

      Exhaustion of Supplies at Gibraltar 121

      Rodney with the Channel Fleet Sails for its Relief,


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