A History of Matrimonial Institutions (Vol. 1-3). George Elliott Howard
supported in the main by that of Westermarck, who especially emphasizes the fact that colors and the other secondary characters are "upon the whole advantageous, inasmuch as they make it easier for the sexes to find each other." They exist to be seen. By association of ideas it is natural that the females should find them pleasing, for to them they are the "symbols of the most exciting period of their lives."[658] Furthermore, "the greatest advantage is won with the least possible peril;" for "usually they occur in males only, because of the females' greater need of protection. They are not developed till the age of reproduction, and they appear, in a great many species, only during the pairing season."[659] It follows, therefore, that sexual selection is but another aspect of natural selection, and the secondary sexual characters are perpetuated in harmony with the law of survival of the fittest. Whichever view is accepted, the fact with which we are especially concerned remains: the female exercises the function of choice.
Turning now to the human race, we find that the same law prevails. Savage and barbarous men are passionately fond of self-decoration and display. "There are peoples," says Westermarck, "destitute of almost everything which we regard as necessaries of life, but there is no people so rude as not to take pleasure in ornaments;" and he quotes Spencer's remark that, great as is the vanity of the civilized, it is exceeded by the vanity of the uncivilized.[660] Every sort of decoration is in use. Attention is paid especially to the arrangement of the hair. The body is disfigured or transformed in a variety of ways. The ears, nose, or cheeks are pierced or bored, and rings or other ornaments inserted. The teeth are colored or otherwise mutilated; and the body is scarred, painted, or tattooed.[661] Now it is demonstrated by wide observation that the primary purpose of self-decoration is the stimulation of sexual passion. In all parts of the world the desire for it "is strongest at the beginning of the age of puberty," all such customs "being practiced most zealously at that period of life."[662] The "common notion that women are by nature vainer and more addicted to dressing and decorating themselves than men" does not hold good, at any rate for savage and barbarous peoples. The females are, of course, often fond of adornment, in this way trying to please or attract their lovers. In some cases tattooing is practiced "exclusively or predominately" by the women, and "the men sometimes wear fewer ornaments;" but as a general rule it is the man who shows the greater desire to beautify himself as a means of gaining the favor of the opposite sex.[663] The woman requires to be wooed, for she is more fastidious than man in the choice of a mate. "A Maori proverb says, 'Let a man be ever so good-looking, he will not be much sought after; but let a woman be ever so plain, men will still eagerly seek after her.'"[664] Besides, it is remarked that "very generally among the lower races, the females are even more unattractive in aspect than the males."[665] But both sexes co-operate in the process of selection; and as social institutions are developed man shares in it more and more. In this way are transmitted the distinctive mental and physical characteristics of each race which are necessary to its survival, and upon which its standard of beauty depends.[666]
If the law of sexual selection has been rightly stated, it would, indeed, be strange if women among low races should not preserve some liberty of choice in marriage. In the savage state, says Darwin, man keeps woman in a far more abject position "than does the male of any other animal;" and hence it is not surprising that "he should have gained the power of selection."[667] But it must not be forgotten that even the lowest races of which we have any knowledge have advanced far beyond the primordial state of man. Darwin himself comes to the conclusion, after examining the evidence, that savage "women are not in quite so abject" a condition as is commonly supposed;[668] and the facts show that in a vast number of cases they have a decisive, though not always a legal, voice in the choice of a husband.
According to Post, the right of assent is subject to the following principal variations:[669] (1) Among a large number of peoples the contract or betrothal is made by the parents or relatives, no regard at all being had to the will either of the bride or bridegroom.[670] Infant-marriage or betrothal, in particular, is of frequent occurrence; and sometimes children are promised even before they are born. Naturally such engagements are often merely contracts of sale; but usually they have a deeper social significance as a means of extending and more firmly knitting the bonds of family or gentile union. This custom implies something more than mere brutal indifference to the wishes of the children; and, besides, it serves the ethical purpose of restricting the sexual liberty of the bride.[671] Such a contract is not always legally binding upon the children, especially the bridegroom; and when it is binding, the betrothed often disregard it, or the bride runs away with another man.[672] (2) In some cases the consent of the bride alone is ignored;[673] (3) in others her approval is asked pro forma, but refusal never occurs and would not be tolerated;[674] (4) or the choice may, in fact, be left to the young man and woman, while the right of betrothal belongs to the guardian. With the Bataks of Sumatra, for instance, vows and pledges are exchanged by the lovers; and in case the girl is betrothed by her parents against her will, she may run away to the giver of the love-pledge, who is then compelled to receive her. A similar rule prevails in Timor and among the Tscherkese of Asia Minor.[675] Sometimes (5) the young people are legally bound to submit to the choice of the guardian only in case of the first marriage, which, accordingly, is often dissolved after a few years or even a few months; while the second marriage, being usually a marriage of inclination, may long endure.[676] Again (6), even among such rude peoples as the Timorlaut islanders, the consent of the betrothed is sometimes essential to a valid marriage;[677] and still more striking are those cases (7) in which the bride and bridegroom themselves appear as the contracting parties, the right of assent now belonging to the parent or guardian. The legal conditions are thus reversed.
Free marriage in one or the other of these forms is very widely diffused, though it may not always be possible to determine the exact legal relation of the guardian and the betrothed.[678] Sometimes self-betrothal and contract by the guardian are found side by side. Such is the case in Rotuma; and among the Turks of middle Asia the conventional marriage, in which the couple are contracted by their fathers in childhood, is found in connection with natural marriage which rests upon the vows of the betrothed.[679]
IV. PRIMITIVE FREE MARRIAGE SURVIVING WITH PURCHASE, AND THE DECAY OF THE PURCHASE-CONTRACT
It is commonly assumed that where marriage by purchase exists woman must necessarily be in an abject condition. The "average facts," says Spencer, "show that at first women are regarded by men simply as property, and continue to be so regarded through several later stages: they are valued as domestic cattle."[680] Such also is the opinion of Letourneau, who takes a very pessimistic view of the early condition of woman. During a long period her wishes in marriage were utterly ignored. The sale of women and children for slaves or wives is the result of brute force and the primitive despotism of man. Marriage by purchase, he says, "implies a profound disdain of woman, her complete assimilation to movables, to cattle, to things in general."[681] Doubtless among low races the lot of woman is often extremely harsh and degraded. The examples already given demonstrate that she is sometimes treated merely as an object of sale or exchange; and where polygyny exists wife-purchase may have a strong tendency to reduce her to slavery.[682] But a more careful examination of the evidence proves that marriage by purchase is not inconsistent with a high degree of matrimonial choice on the part of the woman. As already suggested, purchase is far from being the original method of contracting marriage. Like the patriarchal authority in general,[683] by which the liberty of the son as well as that of the daughter is sometimes destroyed, it is of comparatively late origin, arising with the institution of property and an appreciation of the economic value of labor. "It may be said generally that in a state of nature every grown-up individual earns his own living. Hence there is no slavery, as there is, properly speaking, no labour." A man then had no reason "to retain his full-grown daughter; she might go away, and marry at her pleasure."[684]
In marriage by purchase there is still a chance for the wooer; and the unwilling maiden has many an opportunity to avoid a husband whom she does not fancy.[685] Elopement has its chief significance in this connection. Instead of being necessarily a relic of wife-capture, it is rather the means by which the lovers, particularly the bride, maintain the actual right to dispose of themselves in marriage.[686]