VCSEL Industry. Babu Dayal Padullaparthi
first automotive standards qualified and individually addre...Figure 6.7 (a) Block diagram of LiDAR SOC.(b) A solid‐state LiDAR module...Figure 6.8 Display of scanned image from flash LiDAR system with VCSEL trans...Figure 6.9 A flash LiDAR module integrated on rear side of autonomous shuttl...Figure 6.10 Function of three kinds of LiDARs.Figure 6.11 Solar irradiance seen at the ground.Figure 6.12 MPE as energy density versus wavelength for various exposure tim...Figure 6.13 Structured light points from 2D‐VCSEL arrays with (a) high and (...Figure 6.14 TOF detection with AND gate and probability of capturing backgro...Figure 6.15 Majestic display of LiDAR transmitter made from 940 nm VCSEL arr...Figure 6.16 Individual (a) row‐, (b) column‐, and (c) zone‐wise addressable ...Figure 6.17 A car loaded with MEMS‐based LiDARs for MMS project.Figure 6.18 (a) Lumentum FWCM LOSA using 1550 nm DBR laser.(b) Far‐field...Figure 6.19 An example of highly reliable 940 nm VCSEL (a) bare and (b) pack...Figure 6.20 An infotainment system in the cockpit of an AV.Figure 6.21 Historical evolution of serial bus technologies.
7 Chapter 7Figure 7.1 Output beam characteristics of VCSEL, LED, and EELs.Figure 7.2 Coherence length of an illuminator as a function of the spectral ...Figure 7.3 Relative optical emission spectrum of LEDs, EELs, and VCSELs at −...Figure 7.4 Components of a VCSEL‐based optical mouse [12].Figure 7.5 VCSEL‐based infrared flashlight available on www.alibaba.comFigure 7.6 Infrared night vision camera with a VCSEL illuminator available o...Figure 7.7 Illuminator with 30 W of peak power and capable of direction illu...Figure 7.8 Thermal transit time as a function of distance between the emitte...Figure 7.9 Illuminator modules produced by Princeton Optronics (now AMS) cap...Figure 7.10 Night vision images collected with VCSEL illuminators [6]. Note ...Figure 7.11 Scaling of VCSEL power from a single emitter at 10 mW to systems...Figure 7.12 (a) A 10 kW heating system with over 3M VCSEL emitters, and (b) ...Figure 7.13 Map of heating applications and the required BPP and total optic...Figure 7.14 Map of heating applications and the required pulsewidth and powe...Figure 7.15 (a) Difference between flash lamp or carbon filament heaters and...Figure 7.16 Map of heating applications and the required pulsewidth and powe...
8 Chapter 8Figure 8.1 Schematic of InP‐, GaSb‐, and GaAs‐based VCSEL technologies used ...Figure 8.2 (a) Analogy of a VCSEL to an optical fiber showing multiple trans...Figure 8.3 A single‐mode VCSEL with a small metal aperture used in laser pri...Figure 8.4 (a) Cross section of a VCSEL with surface relief etch. (b) SEM im...Figure 8.5 (a) Cross‐section schematic of a photonic crystal VCSEL. (b) Top‐...Figure 8.6 (a) Orientation of [100] GaAs substrate and (b) [n11] GaAs substr...Figure 8.7 (a) A VCSEL structure grown on a [311]B substrate and (b) the opt...Figure 8.8 (a) Top‐view image of a VCSEL with a surface grating. (b) AFM ima...Figure 8.9 Polarization‐controlled VCSEL using an HCG.Figure 8.10 (a) Simplified schematic of a VCSEL with a widely tunable wavele...Figure 8.11 (a) Simplified schematic of a tunable VCSEL with a cantilever DB...Figure 8.12 Evolution of the tuning ratio as a function of time [22].Figure 8.13 (a) Schematic of an LED‐ and‐VCSEL based mouse [26]. (b) 3D sche...Figure 8.14 (a) Schematic of self‐mixing [28]. (b) Philips Twin‐Eye™ sensor ...Figure 8.15 Optical Encoder. (a) Schematic of an optical encoder. (b) Chip s...Figure 8.16 Schematic of a VCSEL‐based laser printing engine.Figure 8.17 (a) 40 element VCSEL array used in an industrial laser printer, ...Figure 8.18 Absorption spectrum and detectivity level of some important gase...Figure 8.19 VCSEL wavelengths available for gas sensing form Vertilas (www.v...Figure 8.20 GaSb VCSEL designed to operate in the mid‐infrared region.Figure 8.21 (a) Portion of the atomic spectrum of Cs showing the relevant VC...Figure 8.22 (a) Schematic of a physics package for a VCSEL‐based atomic cloc...Figure 8.23 The oscillator module for an atomic clock.Figure 8.24 The principle of SS‐OCT.Figure 8.25 Images of OCT: (a) Vasculature and capillaries (red and yellow) ...Figure 8.26 Cross‐sectional image of the eyeball by OCT using VCSEL: (a) OCT...
9 Chapter 9Figure 9.1 VCSEL structures for LW‐VCSEL.Figure 9.2 (a) LW‐VCSEL die. (b) LW‐VCSEL in an LC fiber TOSA. (c) Tunable V...Figure 9.3 Light field and single‐photon emission [30].Figure 9.4 Concept of quantum encryption (K. Iga).
10 Chapter 10Figure 10.1 Estimated future VCSEL chip markets.Figure 10.2 Schematic of past, present, and future VCSEL markets and applica...
11 Appendix AFigure A.1 Key stages of VCSEL development for mass production.Figure A.2 (a) A generic top‐emitting, oxide‐confined VCSEL structure for ma...Figure A.3 (a) Basic elements in MQW‐based active region. (b) Example of pho...Figure A.4 Structure of (a) oxide window (OW) and tilted OW at (b) node and ...Figure A.5 The concepts of thermal conductivity of AlxGa1−xAs systems ...Figure A.6 Discretization of device into (a) finite difference (FDM/FDTD) an...Figure A.7 Flowchart of VCSEL device in numerical modeling.Figure A.8 Interplay of material properties with strength of simulations for...Figure A.9 Schematics of active regions with (a) 1.0λ and (b) 0.5λFigure A.10 (a) A schematic of surface relief integrated VCSEL.(b) A sch...Figure A.11 Schematics of (b) electrical equivalent, (a) dual and shallow ox...Figure A.12 (a) Concept of neff. (b) Phase conditions and experimental varia...Figure A.13 (a) LIV characteristics of VCSELs with different top heat sink s...Figure A.14 Design (dotted line) and operation (continuous line) PCE charact...
12 Appendix BFigure B.1 Technologies and materials used for VCSEL growth at various wavel...Figure B.2 Materials lattice constant vs bandgap at various wavelengths. App...Figure B.3 GaAs epi‐wafer share in photonics.Figure B.4 Schematics of epitaxial growth in (a) MBE and (b) MOCVD.Figure B.5 Key growth parameters as black‐box items.Figure B.6 (a) Multiple sections and growth temperature relationship in a VC...Figure B.7 Flowchart of MOCVD calibrations for a VCSEL structure.Figure B.8 Quasi layer structures for (a) Al(x) composition and (b) p‐ and n...Figure B.9 Quasi layer structures for (a) p‐DBR and (b) n‐DBR reflectivities...Figure B.10 (a) PL wavelength map of 6″ (150 mm) wafer for 940 nm VCSSEL....Figure B.11 (a) Mini and (b) full VCSEL structures to grow in a MOCVD system...Figure B.12 SIMS doping profile of p‐DBR, AR and n‐DBR in a VCSEL structure....Figure B.13 PL map of GaN QWs grown on Si 8″ (200 mm) substrate.
13 Appendix CFigure C.1 (a) Cross‐sectional image of HEMT.(b) Cross‐sectional image o...Figure C.2 (a) Top anode–bottom cathode (TB), and (b) top anode–top cathode ...Figure C.3 (a) DOE and lot steps and (b) process and product oriented steps ...Figure C.4 Schematic of visual inspection patterns/contours for (a) datacom ...Figure C.5 Schematic generic process flow of high‐speed (datacom) top‐emitti...Figure C.6 Sequence of process flow for (a) top anode–bottom cathode (TB), a...Figure C.7 Schematic generic process flow of high‐power (3D sensing and imag...Figure C.8 Key process conditions for VCSEL manufacturing.Figure C.9 Example of Six Sigma methodology used in parameter analysis.Figure C.10 Wafer probe (a) power and (b) wavelength maps for a fully proces...
14 Appendix DFigure D.1 Schematic of a VCSEL manufacturing process showing test aggregati...Figure D.2 Schematic of VCSEL testing stages.Figure D.3 (a) Measured VCSEL reflectance spectrum on wafer immediately afte...Figure D.4 VCSEL oxide aperture imaged with different center wavelengths sho...Figure D.5 VCSEL oxide aperture measurement interpolated onto a 150 mm diame...Figure D.6 (a) Variation of VCSEL threshold current and (b) slope efficiency...Figure D.7 Wafer maps showing the variation in DC‐measured parameters on a 1...Figure D.8 Box plots showing the variation in DC measured parameters on a 15...Figure D.9 Correlation of threshold current and wall plug efficiency as a fu...Figure D.10 Wafer map of relaxation oscillation frequency sampled and mapped...Figure D.11 Power emission form a single die on a wafer under different puls...
15 Appendix EFigure E.1 Reliability bathtub curve showing the early failure rate (red), r...Figure E.2 (a) Plot of acceleration factor as a function of temperature for ...Figure E.3 (a) Plot of wavelength as a function of PDISS and (b) the calcula...Figure E.4 Thermal image of a two‐dimensional VCSEL array and the measured t...Figure E.5 (a) top view from a TEM cross‐section of a VCSEL active region th...Figure E.6 (a) Plan‐view TEM image of an oxide isolated VCSEL showing the pr...Figure E.7 Cross‐section view of a typical oxide isolated VCSEL with a lumpe...Figure E.8 Reverse I‐V characteristic of a normal VCSEL and one that has bee...Figure E.9 Forward bias electroluminescence image showing ESD damage locatio...Figure E.10 Plan‐view and cross‐sectional views of EOS, HBM, MM, and ESD dam...Figure E.11 Damage threshold for HBM ESD events as a function of the emissio...Figure E.12 (a) shows low‐current luminescence image of a VCSEL with a darke...Figure E.13 Measured power output as a function