The Concise Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics. Carol A. Chapelle
described above, a number of other factors affect text comprehension. With little regard for nonlanguage‐specific factors, it would be difficult to promote broad‐based reading ability through assessment.
In language‐focused reading assessment, language selection could also constitute a threat to the validity of the intended inferences. Language selection refers to decisions regarding the use of the student's first language or the target language for non‐passage elements (e.g., test administration, task instructions, and comprehension questions). If, for example, the target language is used for task instructions, there is always a likelihood that some learners pursue the task without understanding what they are expected to do. Although a clear grasp of the task, when presented in the target language, could be taken as a partial indicator of linguistic sophistication, score differences derived from non‐passage elements remain unintended, making their interpretation difficult at best and erroneous at worst. It is problematic to determine whether poor performance is attributable to task misconceptions, underdeveloped linguistic knowledge, or inadequate reading skills. Conflation of this sort, arising from unintended linguistic obstacles, constitutes a unique challenge in second language reading assessment.
Lexical scaffolding, such as access to a glossary and dictionary, is another challenge uniquely associated with second language reading assessment. Because gaps between second language vocabulary size and conceptual knowledge vary differently among learners of different ages, with distinct first language backgrounds, and with diverse educational experiences, lexical scaffolding could differently affect their comprehension performance. It is important that the characteristics of the focal group of test takers and the intended inference be considered when deciding about access to lexical scaffolding. If, for example, the objective of reading assessment is to gauge the ability to learn new concepts through reading, scaffolding should reduce the risk of underestimating the ability of interest. If, on the other hand, the primary goal is to estimate the learner's language proficiency, lexical assistance may hamper accurate inference about linguistic sophistication of the learner.
In brief, the reading‐as‐language view currently prevails in language classrooms. Considering the centrality of linguistic knowledge in reading, such a view may seem sensible. However, reading pedagogy under this view rarely promotes the utilization of the learner's cognitive and conceptual resources, and, as a result, gives nominal attention to the additional, perhaps even more critical, role of knowledge of the target language—that is, granting the learner access to her nonlinguistic resources in the first language. Thus, the narrow focus at its worst disregards the most fundamental operation in second language reading. This could pose serious challenges for score interpretation.
Future Directions in Second Language Reading Assessment
Assessment of reading in a second language has taken shape following the principles in test development in language assessment. The tradition has resulted in heavy emphasis on language‐specific skills in the target language, and, as its corollary, scant regard for nonlanguage‐specific resources available in the learner's first language. Future agendas can be built to tackle these and other complexities arising from the involvement of two languages in second language reading.
One way of addressing crosslinguistic issues in reading assessment is to incorporate predictable variations induced by first language reading skills and other resources. Over the last three decades, research has shown that previously acquired skills variably affect second language reading development. To date, however, we know little about how such variations alter assessment outcomes and their interpretation. As a case in point, it is widely recognized that decoding competence develops at disparate rates in learners with diverse first language orthographic backgrounds, but it is not well understood how such disparity predicts speed and accuracy of text comprehension among linguistically diverse learners. Thus, we have yet to know to what extent and how facilitation stemming from transferred first language skills in one operation enhances the execution of other, later occurring, operations. In recent years, these complex issues have begun to attract attention among second language reading researchers. Findings from this research, if properly incorporated, could substantially improve interpretability of assessment outcomes, and, in so doing, enhance their utility in language classrooms.
Another way of increasing the legitimacy of second language reading assessment is to foster broad‐based reading ability by adopting the notion of student‐centered learning. Central to the student‐centered approaches is the principle that the exponential growth in knowledge—be it of language or content—occurs when the student is allowed to bring her personal experiences to the process of learning (Caccamise, Snyder, & Kintsch, 2008). The notion can be easily extended to the process of demonstrating progress in learning. Personalization is an optimal way of giving the student agency over learning. By broadening the conception of reading ability, assessment could serve as the catalyst for a shift of learning responsibilities from teachers to students—that is, the most fundamental commitment in student‐centered approaches.
In today's world, a large number of learners strive to read in a second, or a later acquired, language for learning new concepts. Despite its centrality in deeper text understanding, the capacity for personalizing text information has attracted far less attention than it deserves in second language reading assessment. As a process of connecting text information with the reader's knowledge, personalization allows the second language learner to build links between linguistic and nonlinguistic resources in two languages, and thus, promotes the ability to use language autonomously for meaning making. This ability in turn supports exponential growth of vocabulary and other facets of linguistic knowledge during reading. Obviously, we have much to gain from adopting the notion of broad‐based reading ability in second language instruction and assessment.
SEE ALSO: New Literacies of Online Research and Comprehension; Uses of Language Assessments; Validation of Language Assessments
References
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